Psychology

In the article, Safe as a woman,  Melissa talks about two seeds that grew inside her.
The first seed was that of homosexuality, which became a part of her from the age of seven.

The author does not give a specific reason for her sexual orientation. In fact, Melissa
herself is confused about her affinity towards girls instead of boys. So, when Melissa, a devout
Christian reads a particular paragraph in the Bible berating homosexuals, she feels dejected.

Acceptance by society is desired by everyone. It is so with Melissa too. She wants to be
accepted as she is. Reading those lines in the Bible, makes matters worse for her. As an adult,
Melissa finds acceptance in her lesbian relationship with her girlfriend. She becomes part of the
gay community, where she feels welcomed and can be free of pretense.

But, she describes this step as unable, unaware and unwilling to resist. This clearly
shows that in her subconscious mind, she is still programmed to follow societys norms and
Bibles teachings.

She craves acceptance from the society, especially the church, though she is not aware of
this. Later, she finds acceptance, when she meets a couple, Doris and Bill, who like her for what
she is. The couple start praying for her illness and the second seed is planted. She becomes an
active member of the church and begins to think of womanhood.

There are many interesting aspects to this transition. Earlier, when Melissa was a child,
she visited the Church, as she felt it was the right thing to do. Later, she joins the Church of her
own free will. The difference is that as a child, Melissa was confused about her sexual
orientation. Her regular visits to the Church and her subsequent sighting of a paragraph If a
man lies with a man as one lies with a woman, both of them have done what is detestable. They
must be put to death their blood will be on their own heads (Leviticus 2013), in the Bible fills
her with guilt.

She believes subconsciously, even when she is in a lesbian relationship, that she is
suffering from an illness and homosexuality is a sin. This thinking can be traced back to her
childhood, when it was ingrained in her that the word of the God was final.

So, in a way, the second seed of enlightenment, was planted even before the first. And
because of that seed, Melissa experiences guilt all the time. But, when the couple accept her, she
is freed from her guilt.

A free Melissa decides to walk away from homosexuality. She begins by joining
Crossover Ministries, which helps people with changing their sexual orientation.

Melissa starts reading all the literature available on the subject to understand her past
behavior and march towards womanhood. In the end for Melissa, acceptance was far more
important than following her desires. The desire and the fear of the written word in the Bible was
so much that she manages to convince herself that homosexuality is a sin that needs to be
repented.

And so she begins a new quest for womanhood at the age of thirty.

Diagnosis Dependent Personality Disorder, Axis II, Cluster C anxious and fearful
Symptoms Agnes displays six of the eight specified criteria provided by The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders IV text revision (as cited in Perry, n.d.) indicated by the following
Need for others to assume responsibility for her life. She has become extremely reliant on her daughter and she insists that she accompany her in everything she does

Difficulty in expressing disagreement with others. This is manifested in the submissive and passive role she assumes in the relationship with her husband

Lack of self confidence. Agnes has difficulty in initiating projects or doing things on her own. Agnes made no effort to pursue a college degree despite yearning for one

Intense desire to obtain approval and support from others, which was evident in being a teachers pet and suspending her own education to help her husband finish college

Exaggerated fear of being unable to take care of herself. Agnes once had a panic attack at the thought of becoming isolated and

Agnes is preoccupied with fears of being left to take care of herself. Agnes misinterprets episodes of anxiety as heart disease for four years.

Some features of dependent personality disorder overlap with those of borderline, histrionic and avoidant personality disorders, but there are differences as well. For example, both borderline and dependent personalities fear abandonment. However, Agnes does not have the pattern of intense and stormy relationship that the borderline has. Histrionic and dependent personalities both have strong needs for reassurance and approval but the style of histrionic is much more gregarious, flamboyant and actively demanding of attention (Carson, Butcher Mineka, 2000), whereas, Agnes is more docile and self-effacing.

Therapy plan
Initiation The therapist must facilitate short-term weekly sessions where Agnes can realize and air out how her life problems have occurred and why it has gone on for so long and to such a high degree. The therapist must avoid becoming another authority figure Agnes will be submissive to. Long-term therapy, while ideal for many personality disorders, is contra-indicated in this instance since it reinforces a dependent relationship upon the therapist. Further, prior research by Winston and colleagues (1994) has found that short-term psychotherapy that is both active and confrontational results to significant improvement in patients with Cluster C disorders.

Maintenance Group therapy with assertiveness-training activities that provide clearly defined goals to encourage boldness, confidence and initiative may be integrated to Agness program. Care should be utilized to ensure that Agnes does not use groups to enhance existing or new dependent relationships. Challenging dependent relationships Agnes has with others that may be unhealthy for her should generally be avoided at the onset of therapy and is ideally done when initial improvement has been made. As therapy progresses, restraint must be used if she is not ready to give up these unhealthy relationships.

Termination Cessation of therapy is an extremely important issue to consider. While termination should always be a joint decision between the clinician and the client, people with this disorder often think they require more treatment. The therapist may need to prod Agnes toward ending therapy. As the end of therapy approaches, Agnes may re-experience feelings of insecurity, lack of self-confidence, increased anxiety and perhaps even depression. This is typical of individuals with this disorder so terminating therapy should be treated appropriately. The clinician should not allow the patient to use these new symptoms as a way of prolonging the current therapy. The objective is to end a relationship at an agreed-upon time and way. Agnes should be reinforced for the positive gains made in therapy and encouraged to explore their new-found autonomy or improved management of their anxious feelings. (Dependent Personality, 2006).

This paper is to show and present articles to show the investigation of a specific mood or mental disorder. The main objective of the paper is to define DSM and mental disorder. TheDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), is the standard classification of mental disorders used by mental health professionals in the United States. It is published by the HYPERLINK httpadd.about.comodglossaryahgAPA.htm American Psychiatric Association. The DSM contains a listing of psychiatric disorders and their corresponding diagnostic codes (About.com, 20010).

There are a number of psychological mood disorders. These may be based on either genetics or based on situations and events that might have occurred in their lives. Mental or mood disorder is a clinically significant behavioural or psychological syndrome or pattern that occurs in an individual and that is associated with present distress (e.g., a painful symptom) or disability (i.e., impairment in one or more important areas of functioning)it must not be merely an expectable and culturally sanctioned response to a particular eventNeither deviant behavior (e.g., political, religious or sexual) nor conflicts that are primarily between the individual and society are mental disorders unlessthis is a symptom of the dysfunction (DSM-IV, APA, 1994).

Depression
To ordinary people, the word depression is used lightly.  Even a normal person, who just had a bad turn I life or merely just did not get his way may say that he feels depressed.  But the term depression has a deeper meaning and scientific definition.  In psychiatry, depression is a symptom ofmood disordercharacterized by intense feelings of loss, sadness, hopelessness, failure, and rejection. The two major types ofmood disorderare unipolar disorder, also called major depression, and bipolar disorder, whose sufferers are termed manic-depressive. Other types of depression are recognized, with characteristics similar to the majormood disorders, but not as severe they are adjustment disorder with depression, dysthymic disorder, and cyclothymic disorder (Wolpert L. , 2000).

Having defined depression and finding out that there are 2 other kinds that fall under its umbrella unipolar and bipolar disorders.  Bipolar disorder is much rarer, affecting only about 1 of the U.S. population women and men tend to be equally susceptible. Its sufferers alternate between states of depressionsimilar to that which is experienced in unipolar disorderand mania, which is characterized by intense euphoria and frenetic activity. Bipolar disorders are often interspersed with periods of relatively normal behavior, which may last for long periods of time between episodes of depression or mania. Manic-depressives have an extremely high rate of suicide, and episodes of the disorder tend to recur (Wolpert L. , 2000).

This kind of disorder may hit any kind of person or individual, even adolescents may have this kind of disorder. A few years ago, mental health counsellors and other professionals rarely diagnosedbipolar disorderin adolescence. The American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry reports that up to one third of the 3.4 million children and adolescents with depression in the United States may actually be suffering from the onset ofbipolar disorder. In addition, it has been estimated that one third of the children and adolescents diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD) may be suffering from emergingbipolar disorder(as cited Wilkinson,G.B., Taylor, T.  Holt J.r.).

Because  this illness may hit children, their young minds may not be able to grasp the essence and gravity of the disorder, in fact they and even their parents may not even know of the illness, young adults turn or tend to try different things and experiment. Adolescents may consume illegal drugs in an attempt to control their mood swings and insomnia. Sudden development of the disorder following puberty often results in addiction to drugs and alcohol in these vulnerable adolescents. It then becomes necessary to treat both thebipolar disorderand the substance abuse (as cited Wilkinson,G.B., Taylor, T.  Holt J.r).  In children and younger adolescents, the disorder is more continuous than in adults with few asymptomatic periods between episodes of depression and mania. Some children and adolescents cycle between depression and mania as few as several times per year, while others cycle within a week or month. However, most bipolar children cycle between depression to mania several times throughout the day. This mixed state can cause them to feel full of energy, restless, worthless, and self-destructive simultaneously (as cited Wilkinson,G.B., Taylor, T.  Holt J.r).

Treatment
Though this may sound dreadful, bipolar may be treated and there is still hope for those to experience and go through life as normal as others.  Antidepressants are safe to use with mood stabilizers but ease bipolar depression no better than placebo pills do, report psychiatrist Gary S. Sachs of Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston and his colleagues. Their investigation, the largest ever of bipolar disorder, appears online and in the April 26 New England Journal of Medicine (Bower,B., 2007). Clinicians must adjust treatment to an individuals symptoms, comments psychiatrist Robert H. Belmaker of Ben Gurion University of the Negev in Beersheba, Israel, in an editorial published with the new report. For example, Belmaker prescribes only antidepressants to patients with severe depression that alternates with mild mania and gives mood stabilizers to most other bipolar patients (Bower, B., 2007).

Agnes lives in a relatively constant state of worry and diffused uneasiness. She is scared to be left alone and is troubled about a  heart disease  which the doctor assures her has no pathology and is probably a result of nervousness and strain. She lives in anxious apprehension, which is defined as a future-oriented mood state in which a person attempts to be constantly ready to deal with upcoming events (Barlow, Chorpita,  Turovsky, 1996). This mood state is characterized by high levels of negative affect, chronic over arousal, and a sense of uncontrollability (Barlow et al., 1996). This is apparent when Agnes acknowledges that her behavior is absurd but is still compelled to perform within a pattern not warranted by her environment.

In addition to their excessive levels of worry and anxious apprehension, people with generalized anxiety disorder often have difficulty concentrating and making decisions, dreading to make a mistake (Carson, Butcher,  Mineka, 2000). This is supported by the fact that Agnes has made no effort in pursuing a college degree despite yearning for it. Individuals with this disorder also commonly complain of somatic symptoms like heart racing and difficulty breathing (Carson et al., 2000) which coincides with what Agnes interprets as  heart disease .

300.01     Panic Disorder without Agoraphobia
Diagnostically, panic disorder is defined and characterized by the occurrence of unexpected panic attacks that often seem out of the blue. According to the DSM-IV definition, the person must have experienced recurrent unexpected attacks and must have been persistently concerned about having another attack or worried about the consequences of having an attack for at least a month. To qualify as a full blown panic attack, there must be abrupt onset of at least 3 to 14 symptoms such as shortness of breath, heart palpitations, sweating, dizziness, depersonalization or derealization, fear of dying, of  going crazy  or of  losing control  (Carson et al., 2000). These descriptions coincide with the incident where Agnes was left alone in her daughter s house and had a panic attack at the thought of isolation. Following the incident, Agnes refused to be alone, perhaps fearing that, at the event of another attack, no one would be there to help her.  Thus, she insisted that her daughter accompany her everywhere.

Axis II
301.83     Dependent Personality Disorder
Individuals with this disorder show extreme dependence on other people, clinging and submissive behavior. They also show acute discomfort, even panic, at the possibility of separation or sometimes of simply having to be alone, often leading to excessive reliance on emergency medical services (Bornstein, 1997). This coincides with tendency of Agnes to constantly cling to her daughter.

These individuals usually build their lives around other people and subordinate their own needs to keep those people involved with them. As a result of their lack of self confidence, dependent personalities passively allow other people to take over the major decisions in their lives. This is apparent in the subservient behavior Agnes exhibits with her husband.

They are often preoccupied with a fear of being left to take care of themselves and lack the ability to initiate projects or do things on their own. Both of which are characteristics exhibited by Agnes.

Axis III
None
Axis IV
Agnes grew up with a father who had a moderate drinking problem. It has been seen that adult children with parents who have alcohol problems  feel isolated, and uneasy with other people, especially authority figures. To protect themselves, they become people-pleasers, even though they lose  their own identities in the process. They become reactors rather than actors, letting others take the initiative. (Adult Children of Alcoholics World Service Organization. n.d.)

Agnes has always been with male figures that makes it easy for her to slip into submissive or subservient roles which she has also observed with her mother. Agnes must be able to develop self-confidence so she may become more secure in her interactions with the world.

Axis V
GAF60
Code 51-60 Some mild symptoms (e.g., depressed mood and mild insomnia) OR some difficulty in social occupational, or school functioning (e.g., occasional truancy or theft within the household), but generally functioning pretty well, has some meaningful interpersonal relationships. (American Psychiatric Association, 1994, p.32)

Agnes experiences depression due to a sense of helplessness about the events happening in her world, a phenomenon referred to as  learned helplessness . She experiences difficulty to function well when left alone and is prone to panic attacks. However, Agnes manages to maintain a relationship with her husband and daughter, albeit the daughter has become frustrated by Agnes s escalated clinging behavior for the last six months.

This paper attempts to analyze two experiments, one focused on destructive obedience and the other on cognitive dissonance, their complementary perspectives in the decision-making as well as the different thought process of immoral behavior.

BEHAVIORAL STUDY OF OBEDIENCE
Stanley Milgrams research first published in the Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, involved forty males aged between 20 and 50 years of age, recruited from New Haven area.  They were obtained by responding to a newspaper and direct mail advertisement which asked for volunteers to participate in a study of memory and learning at Yale University.  The participants represented a wide range of occupations, including postal clerks, high-school teachers, salesmen, engineers and laborers.  They were paid 4.50 for their participation in the experiment. The trial consisted of ordering a naive subject in the role of a teacher to administer increasingly more severe punishment to a confederate in the context of a learning experiment. Punishment is administered by means of a bogus shock generator with 30 switches marked clearly in 15 volt increments from 15 to 450 volts.

Results.  Sixty-five percent of the participants obeyed and gave shocks up to 450 volts and 35 stopped sometime before 450 volts and refused to participate. Milgram believed that it is the situation that people find themselves in rather than their dispositions that best explain their actions.

EVALUATION OF PROCEDURE
Weaknesses. A major criticism of Milgrams study was his decision to recruit only male Americans, which resulted in a sample that did not reflect the general population despite taking subjects of different ages from a range of backgrounds.  Also, participants were limited to those who read the advertisement and volunteered for a laboratory experiment, it can be argued that those who replied would have significantly different personalities than those who did not and this would once again make an unrepresentative sample.

Another criticized facet of Milgrams work is concerned with ethics. The subjects were led to believe that they were giving real electric shocks to a real participant thus causing the subject to experience emotional conflict. Milgram stressed that the extraordinary anxiety and the striking reactions of tension and emotional strain generated by the procedures were not anticipated. It was supposed that the subject would simply stop or continue as his conscience dictated. Yet, this is not what happened. An additional ethical concern is the verbal prods used in the experiment which suggested that participants were not given the option to halt the experiment should they wish to. 

Strength.  Milgrams experiment showed notable control and made an impressive job of creating a realistic situation, for example the subjects believed that the roles of learner and teacher had been allocated fairly, by drawing lots, and that the assignments of roles were random. The subjects were convinced that they were actually administering electric shocks on another person. It is also important to note they all used the same apparatus and were subjected to the same verbal prods.

COGNITIVE CONSEQUENCES OF FORCED COMPLIANCE
In Festinger and Carlsmith s classic 1959 experiment, also published in the Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, students were asked to spend an hour on boring tasks like turning pegs a quarter turn, over and over again. The tasks were designed to generate a negative attitude. Once the subjects had done this, the experimenter requests some of them to do a favor. They were asked to talk to another subject, who is actually an actor, and persuade them that the tasks were motivating and fun. Some participants were paid 20 for this favor, another group was paid 1, and a control group was not asked to perform the favor.

Results. When asked to rate the boring tasks at the conclusion of the study, those in the 1 group rated them more positively than those in the 20 and control groups. This was explained by Festinger and Carlsmith as evidence for cognitive dissonance. The researchers theorized that people experienced dissonance among the contradictory cognitions, I convinced someone that the task was exciting, and I in fact found it boring. When paid only 1, students were forced to internalize the attitude they were induced to express, because they had no other justification. Those in the 20 condition, however, had an obvious external justification for their behavior, and thus experienced less dissonance.

Weakness.  The usage of money in the procedure to induce compliance can take on diverse meanings, each individual could have perceived the money differently, as a bribe, a reward or as compensation, and this can induce a corresponding attitude change. Also, one can argue that the large amount of 20 can induce suspicion for such a seemingly simple task.

Strength. The experiment involved subjects to not only vocally state opinion contrary to their personal judgment but also required convincing another person that their vocal statements are true. This creates a definitive situation where dissonance can strongly resonate and attitude change can be inferred.

COMPARISON
Both experiments observed individuals in situations where they were expected to do activities contrary to their moral standards, although in different degrees. Festinger and Carlsmith involved lying and Milgram required the more extreme behavior of inflicting pain on another individual.

Moreover, Festinger and Carlsmith observed internal change in opinion and Milgram focused on the external execution of a physical action. Both experiments consider the thought process of individuals in decision making.

ANALYSIS
Human beings will always find themselves in situations where they are faced with actively making a choice that may or may not coincide with their personal beliefs and moral standards. It is in this context that both experiments offer insight, Milgram was himself surprised at the results of his trials, saying in his book, Obedience to authority an experimental view, that this reveals the power of authority to triumph over conscience.

Milgrams trials on obedience show that people have a strong inclination to comply with authority, despite the strong occurrence of cognitive dissonance or discomfort between the conflicting moral stand, It is wrong to hurt someone, and the action I am hurting someone. The subjects were observed to sweat profusely, tremble, stutter, groan, dig fingernails into their flesh and succumb to nervous fits of laughter during the experiment, although despite these reactions they continued to follow instructions from the figure of authority. In Festinger and Carlsmiths trials the subjects who were offered 1 persuaded themselves that they initially misjudged the circumstances and downplayed the severity of their actions, amending the situation to convince themselves that no harm is done. These experiments show that in the thought process of an individual who is doing something wrong, situational attribution occurs. The subject distances himself from the action saying that he was not thinking, merely following orders or following instinct. After the commission of the wrong deed, the person reduces dissonance by exaggerating the importance of the action thinking that the knowledge or object obtained outweighs the discomfort he is causing, the person also minimizes the extent of damage or conflict caused.

Abstract
The paper provides a review of the article from the Development Psychology journal. The summary and research design are discussed. The article adds to the current state of knowledge about human emotional and cognitive development.

Dearing, E., Wimer, C., Simpkins, S.D., Lund, T., Bouffard, S.M., Caronongan, P.  Kreider, H. (2009). Do neighborhood and home contexts help explain why low-income children miss opportunities to participate in activities outside of school Developmental Psychology, 45(6), 1545-1562.

Children who grow in poor communities often experience the lack of educational and social opportunities and thus tend to lag behind their peers in emotional, social, and cognitive development (Dearing et al, 2009). In their article, Dearing et al (2009) explore the impact of social contextual factors on childrens participation in activities outside of school. For the purpose of their study, the authors integrate developmental theory on family income, neighborhoods, and out-of-school activities (Dearing et al, 2009). The authors do not provide any specific hypothesis but aim to explore neighborhood and home contexts as potential mechanisms helping to explain why low-income children miss opportunities to participate in activities outside of school (Dearing et al, 2009). Dearing et al (2009) investigate available out-of-school opportunities, neighborhood explanations of poor childrens involvement in out-of-school activities, and home explanations to low participation of low-income children in activities outside of school. The two primary research questions are (1) do lower-income children participate less than affluent children and (2) do affluence, neighborhood, and home support explain involvement disparities associated with family income (Dearing et al, 2009). Because childrens participation in school and out-of-school activities contributes significantly to their cognitive and emotional development, Dearing et al (2009) seek to link childrens social status to their emotional and knowledge capabilities and skills.

The study involved child and family data from the PSID-CDS  a longitudinal study of family economic and employment issues with the two large samples included and initiated back in 1968 (Dearing et al, 2009). Wave I of data collection was completed in 1997, when children eligible for participation were between 1 day and 12 years old (Dearing et al, 2009). In 2002-2003, Wave II was completed, to collect data on childrens activity participation (Dearing et al, 2009). The authors of the present study focused their efforts on children from elementary school, creating a sample of 1,420 children (Dearing et al, 2009). For inferential and descriptive analyses, Dearing et al (2009) used a poststratification factor, the inverse of a familys probability of selection for the PSID, and the inverse of a childs probability of selection (Dearing et al, 2009). Demographic information was gathered via parent or primary caregiver report (Dearing et al, 2009). Family PSID reports on income were accessed and analyzed (Dearing et al, 2009). Cognitive and emotional support at home was measured via the Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment  Short Form during Wave II (Dearing et al, 2009). Tract-level data from the 2000 U.S. Census was used to create an indicator of neighborhood affluence (Dearing et al, 2009). Parents were asked to report whether their children participated in seven chosen activities during the past year, while additional child, parent, and home characteristics, including parents propensity to invest in their children and their self-efficacy, were assessed (Dearing et al, 2009).

The authors found the direct link between the level of income and childrens participation in out-of-school activities children from low-income families were exceptionally unlikely to participate in out-of-school activities and thus missed significant growth-enriching opportunities (Dearing et al, 2009). In poorer children, income was much more strongly associated with their participation levels than in more affluent families (Dearing et al, 2009). In its turn, living in affluent neighborhoods and having high family income was the basic predictor of high participation, while affluent neighborhoods proved developmental benefits for children in terms of their achievement (Dearing et al, 2009). The unexpected finding was in that children from less affluent neighborhoods were more likely than their wealthier peers to participate in church activities (Dearing et al, 2009). These results contribute to better understanding of how human development occurs and how childrens propensity to use enriching resources can be limited by preexisting conditions and disadvantages (Dearing et al, 2009).

I cannot say that the results of this study became a revelation to me that childrens development opportunities are influenced significantly by their socioeconomic status and financial abilities is not new. However, the study is interesting and useful in the sense that it emphasizes the role of home support and home cognitive investment in childrens cognitive and skill development. Regardless of the level of income and affluence, parental support and encouragement specific to a particular activity is more important than generalized emotional support, and can foster motivation regarding out-of-school activities in children (Dearing et al, 2009). This information contributes to the knowledge about emotional and moral development of children presented in class. As future professionals, we must be aware of the role which parental and home support plays in the social, emotional, and cognitive development of school children and their participation in out-of-school activities.

1.Identify your overall goal (athletic or otherwise) and write it outusing valid goal setting principles  write out your outcome goal(largeroverall objective), at least two intermediate goals that wouldbe very specific steps to getting there, and at least three task goals(specific activities) for each of your intermediate goals. Be veryorganized so that this is easy to read  use bullets or outlineformat. You must use valid goal setting principles regardingspecificity, timelines, etc. we discuss this in class.    My goal is to lose 10pounds in one year. One of my intermediate goals is to lose all the fat around my waist line within for months. I intend to achieve this by

Swimming for 30minutes daily
Doing 50press ups in the morning and another 50 before I sleep
Increase my water consumption from 6 to 8 glasses a day.
Another intermediate goal will be to reduce my calories consumption by 400-600 by
Replacing soda with a glass of water
Replacing morning egg with an apple
Replacing red meat with white meat

2. In class, we discussed motivation styles and how these styles affectour ability to achieve our goals. Please write a paragraph thatdescribes your primary motivation style and list, in bullet format,at least three specific, valid ways that you can use to motivateyourself to achieve the above goals (from step 1) again, be specificand use valid principles.

One of my motivational styles is to maximize on enjoyment. I do this by taking part in activities that are challenging. Being able to tackle activities with optimal challenges successfully gives me the will to continue and work harder. Challenging tasks create an adrenaline rush that makes me want to continue undertaking such an activity for example setting a time frame within which to swim across a swimming pool will make me go for more laps in an attempt to beat the set record time. It also boosts my self esteem.

I can motivate myself to lose 10pounds by
Buying myself something I love like a new pair of shoes for every one pound lost. Celebrating my victory would help me a lot in working even harder.

Having a list of all the benefits associated with being slender and going through it every morning.
Having an instructor to guide me on the most suitable forms of exercise and who will occasionally rate my progress.

3. Write a paragraph that discusses your primary stress copingstylearousal levels and list (in bullet format) at least three newthings you intend to do to manage your arousal  either during yourathletic pursuits, or just in life in general. Be specific anddetailed.As too much arousal is dangerous, it is important to set up methods of regulating stress, I manage my stress levels by listening to music. This method always leaves me feeling refreshed and ready take on any task.

Other new ways I intend to use to manage my arousal are
Maintaining a positive attitude about life in general regulates arousal.
Try and establish mental skills and practice such skills in order to manage arousal.
Having good sleeping habits and avoids overworking the body.

4. List at least five distracters that you face in your athleticpursuits, or in other areas of your life, and list at least five waysthat you could combat those distracters. Use a bullet format oroutline format for this. Be specific and detailed.In my effort to accomplish my goals, I tend to be distracted by the following

Talking to someone as I work out. This tends to make me drift attention from the task I am doing.
Listening to music as I try to concentrate in another activity.

Having internet as I try to work makes me spend more time on it and chatting than on performing the task at hand.

Television is another major distracter in my life.     
When I am practicing for a game and the coach keeps on shouting.   
 
Some distracters are external and sometimes harder to control, however, use the following methods to cope with both internal and external distracters
Thinking positively helps me to ignore petty irritations and refocus.
Being psychologically prepared to expect distractions especially during big events.

Before a big event, I ensure I have enough rest so that I have enough energy to control the distraction.
At times the only option is to ignore the distraction and try to work as if it were not there.
I have developed a refocusing plan by deep breathing. Having practiced the art of taking a heavy breath helps me regain focus instantly.   
       
5. Write a reaction paragraph where you discuss how the abovestrategies could have helped you in the past, or will be able to helpyou in the future with this goal and others.

The above strategies have come in very handy in achieving my previous goals for example when we had a basketball match in an away ground without supporters, I was prepared to deal with the distraction of not having a cheering group while our opponents were being cheered for. This mental readiness helped us win the match.

Having enough sleep before going swimming will give me enough energy to deal with distraction and therefore work harder at losing weight.

Being able to ignore distracters will help me in ignoring music being played in the gym or a friend trying to talk to me as I work out to lose weight.

Addiction can be defined as the persistent behavioral pattern that is marked by physical andor psychological tolerance or dependency which is displayed by a significant interruption of the persons system leading to physical, social and psychological manifestation of the need to take the substance (s).  This could result in social withdrawal, hostility, impaired cognitive ability of physical displays of weight loss or reddening of the eyes. These characteristics vary with substance type, dosage taken and also the individual physiological make up in relation to tolerance levels.  In this essay substance addiction is first discussed, followed by behavioral addiction.

According to Irving, Weiner and Craighead, the addiction to substances could cause neurological injury that could in turn cause cognitive impairment to the patient (2010 pp. 1046).  This results in negative impacts that affect the quality of life of an organism.  Addiction is most often linked to the abuse of substances that act as narcotic stimulants and sedatives, such as psychoactive drugs.  In medical terms, substance addiction is referred to as the chronic neurobiological malfunction that contains psychosocial, genetic, and environmental effects and makes a person continue using the substance despite the negative effects caused by it.  The addict may lose control over the use of the drug, also known as compulsive behavior that makes himher want to practice the continuous application of the drug even when it is not for medicinal purposes but instead due to cravings.

The term compulsive behavior is used in lay mans language to mean addiction or passionate dedication to activities, or even to hobbies by similarity.  An individuals tolerance to a drug, and the consequential physical dependence on it, does not entail addiction as such although the symptoms come with addiction to some drugs.  This is due to the inability of the patients motoreceptors in the brain to respond in such a way that would consequently lead to compulsive ritualistic behaviors, making the sufferer dependent on the substance (Weiner and Craighead 2010 pp. 1113).  Tolerance is a pharmaceutical phenomenon that refers to the need for the dose of the drug to be gradually and continually increased in order to continue to achieve the desired effect.  In his book titled Drugs of abuse neurological reviews and protocols, Wang claims that there is a category of gene called the nac-I, which is a protein of the IEG class whose levels are increased in the body of the addict by increased dosage of the drug hence the resulting tolerance (Wang, 2003 pp. 8).

An example of the above would be where an individual with severe and chronic pain, taking opiate medication such as morphine, will find it necessary to take an increased dosage in order to maintain the ability of the drug to relieve pain.  Physical dependence is also a pharmaceutical term which describes a condition where the individual will experience definite characteristic withdrawal symptoms and signs if a drug is unexpectedly discontinued.  Most drugs of a therapeutic function display distinctive withdrawal symptoms when discontinued.  Such drugs include certain antidepressants, oral steroids, opiates and benzodiazepines (Wang, 2003 pp 243).  Physical dependence is explained by Wang as the change in gene expression of the patient making himher express the behavioral and physiological changes when the substance is withdrawn.

The use of the term addiction had spread widely to include psychological dependence, hence the common correlation of medical phrases like drug obsession and substance abuse issues. This has led to the description of some of the dependence habits with terms that are not recognized in medicine.  These habits or behaviors might include compulsive overeating, addiction to the internet, shopping, exercise and any other such modes of behavior depending on the individual.  Researchers are not fully able to model or explain human behavior based on the characteristics of the form of behavioral addiction.  However, neural circuits that are engaged in various features of alcohol or substance dependence such as tolerance, reward and motivation exhibit positive or negative progress in the level of addiction (Weiner and Craighead, 2010 pp. 1061).

Different professionals describe different forms of dependence differently according to their revelations in their fields of research.  Compulsive repetition in the use of the substance may cause tolerance of the user to the substance and hence the display of withdrawal symptoms should the administration of the substance be stopped.  This condition together with substance abuse is considered to be Substance Use Disorder. As pharmacologists continue to describe addiction from a physiological point of view, referring to it as physical dependence, psychiatrists look at the condition as psychological dependence.  However, Weiner and Craighead explain that physicians refer to the disorder as addiction.  Scientists regard addiction as a brain disease that is associated with physiological and molecular alterations in the brain (2010 pp. 1061).

In such a case, the situation may be termed as compulsive, although to some it may not be considered as addiction.  This makes the two forms of addiction difficult to separate as both may display physical and psychological elements.  A less familiar situation known as pseudo- addiction is a condition suffered by individuals.  In this case, a patient may exhibit drug request behaviors that resemble psychological addiction.  However, some of these patients may experience genuine pain or even other adverse symptoms as a result of not having had the prior ones treated.  The difference between this condition and psychological addiction is that the effects tend to stop if the pain is treated adequately (Haddox  Weissman, 1989 pp. 363).

Some experts explain the scope of behavior that is termed as addictive based on the patterns, compulsion, physical addiction and impulse control (Weiner and Craighead, 2010 pp 1062).  Addictive non-drug habits include dependency on food, exercise, indoor tanning, relationships with others (codependency) and even work.  Compulsion is seen as being triggered by the need to relieve anxiety (Wang, 2003 pp. 77).  In the case of impulse control disorders like overeating, a specific compulsive behavior is seen to provide short term satisfaction from the indulgence but can end up proving to be harmful in the long run.  Physical addiction is seen as being different from compulsive addiction as it involves the reliance of a habit developing substance that leads to its tolerance and consequential, well defined withdrawal affects.

Despite the fact that different classes of activities are rendered as addictive, more often, individuals engaging in them have a tendency to have attitudes and certain behaviors in common.  Studies indicate that indoor tanning by some individuals can be regarded as addictive and similar to being hooked on drugs, alcohol and other addictive substances (Weiner and Craighead, 2010 pp 1062).  A third of college students who frequent tanning facilities could be considered addicted to the practice on the basis of the same criteria used to diagnose other forms of substance addiction.  These tan-o-holics were reported to show a high level of marijuana and alcohol use and displayed more signs of anxiety than the ones who were not seen as addicted to tanning (Expert Rev. Dermatol, 2010 pp. 123).  The results of the study indicate that tanning and the abuse of drugs might have similar characteristics and mechanisms for how people become addicted.

The Ultra Violet light from the tanning beds was indicated as a possible trigger for the discharge of pleasure-inducing chemicals from the brain known as endorphins, which can make people get in a good mood.  Research shows that in the future, tanners may have to be treated for a suppressed mood disorder to reduce the risk of them contracting skin cancer.  This is because neglecting to treat them would lead to continued visits to tanning beds hence increasing their chances of getting cancer (Expert Rev. Dermatol, 2010 pp. 123).  More work is needs to be done, however, to understand the rationale behind tanning addiction and its association with the addiction to other substances.

According to eHome Fellowship (EHF), compulsive shopping addiction is also a form of dependence that is at times referred to as spending addiction (EHF, 2001 para. 1).  According to eHome Fellowship, shopping addicts might not even realize that they have a problem with needing to spend.  Most addicts of this kind are very likely to perceive a problem only when they run out of money, and then would take it for an income problem.  Although this problem may be misconceived as facing women mostly, eHome Fellowship explains that both men and women alike are prone to the problem.  The organization further explains that some addicts tend to spend money in order to compensate for aspects in their lives that are damaged or out of control (2001 para. 1).

As a result of most addicts of this kind thinking that the problem is with their level of income, they will likely mis-identify the root cause as a source other than themselves.  They might pin this on their bosses, spouses, creditors, prices, or even taxes.  This amounts to denial, which may in turn block any kind of solution suggested to them (2001 para. 2).  Spending is usually the key symptom having been triggered by some emotion.  Later on, the addiction runs deeper and may get rooted to the cycle of spending with every pile of goods bought.  EHF reports that the gratification gained from spending, may be overridden when the bills finally arrive, overwhelming the spender and result in sending them back to the emotional feeling of low esteem and emptiness which restarts the cycle all over again (2001 para. 2).

Compulsive shopping addicts may take sanctuary in a form of help that would prove to be of more harm than good to them.  EHF reveals that in looking for help, shopping addicts run the risk of seeking a harmful solution to their problem via companies that promise solutions to their problems with only the intention to make money (2001 para. 2).  Refinancing and debt consolidation companies, credit card companies and companies offering cash advances may only hide the problems but not solve them.  These temporary solutions may also act as a source of other, bigger problems since all they do is offer temporary sources of finance for the addict who has exhausted their source of cash flow.

EFH reveals that shopping addicts may try finding alternative solutions after the failure of substitute sources of money.  Some may decide to replace their spending addiction with other addictions such as drinking, binge eating or turning to prescription drugs (2001 para.2).  In such cases, what should be administered is a method that puts an end to the cycle and empowers the addicts so that they can deal with the problem from the root.

The effects of addiction to shopping are not only reflected on the addicts but also the people close to and around them.  According to Beating Addictions, a UK based organization that tries to assist addicts of shopping, physical, financial and psychological related problems could have adverse effects to the people around the addicts (2010 para. 7).  The financial disparity that arises from over-purchasing of unnecessary goods may take its toll on affected family members due to the financial drain, and ensuing additional tension and arguments within the family unit.

Exercise addiction is a type of dependence that has proven to be an important topic of discussion to many people who have ended up trapped in the habit either with their knowledge or unknowingly.  People setting out to keep fit and live healthy lives may end up addicted to the practice.  According to McGough, a fitness facility may act as a convenient and yet irresistible trap for members of a certain community (2004 para. 1).  Despite the fact that fitness facilities are established partly to act as an intervention to eating disorders, studies indicate that most people, who most of the time happen to be college students, suffer from an eating disorder (Kerr, Lindner  Blaydon, 2007 pp. 55).  With reference to the college students, this might owe to the fact that most of them experience life changing conditions, while they are moving away from home, that could make some feel pushed to be thin and fit due to social pressures. Other non-college attending individuals may also fall victim of society pressures to be fit and end up addicted to exercise.

Eating disorders are caused by different factors. According to McGough, the gym has been used as a tool to promote health and well-being in individuals.  However, some individuals with eating disorders like bulimia take advantage of this as part of their binging and purging cycles (2004 pp. 1).  Bulimia is an eating disorder in which sufferers are obsessed with their weight.  Such individuals drastically overeat then force themselves to purge or get rid of the calories through vigorous exercise (Helpguide.org, 2010 para. 1).  McGough explains that eating disorders could go undetected for a long time because the sufferers may be of a normal weight yet they are suffering serious health risks like dehydration.  Bulimics are mostly prone to loss of potassium and sodium exposing them to heart complications and an added risk of passing out during exercise and then perhaps hitting their heads when they fall (McGough 2004 pp. 1).

The repercussions of this form of addiction are dire and may even lead to death if not acted upon with seriousness and urgency.  The most that fitness-facility staff and management can do is to observe the training habits relative to the needs of their members and weigh them against safe exercise practices in order to ensure the safety of members.  The greatest responsibility, however, lies with the individual.  Before choosing an exercise program, one must ensure to choose a plan which suits their health needs and which will not strain their bodies.  Control should be exercised by setting limits so that individuals do not get addicted to exercising.

Internet is a massive source of information for social, personal and educational usage.  As a source of entertainment, internet provides a broad array of informational and entertainment material from books, journals, movies, pictures, blogs, music and other products. Internet addiction is yet another habit that is captivating with the continuing advancement in technology.  The additional emergence of various online social networks like MySpace, Facebook and Twitter make the internet a favorable place for some individuals to pass time.  Cyber space addiction may be as a result of different products offered on the internet relating to the different needs of the user.  This habit may result in compulsive alcohol use. The two are related since excessive alcohol consumption leads to irrational behavior such as spending a lot of time on the internet without a particular productive reason (Internet Mental Health, 2009 para. 1).

Research conducted by Roberts and Young reveals that internet addiction is associated with significant psycho-social or occupational impairment disorders (1998 pp.1).  Addicts are seen to be able to spend up to 38 hours per week on the internet for non-academic or employment purposes.  Young and Roberts revealed that so many hours on the internet were detrimental to the addicts performance in their schools, and workplaces in the case of employees.  In a comparison against non-addicts, internet usage of approximately 8 hours per week revealed an unavailability of any significant consequences.  Roberts and young discovered that interactive chat rooms and online games were the most addictive.  This kind of behavioral impulse resulted in failure to improve cognitive abilities without the involvement of any intoxicant and is shown to be related to pathological gambling.  As a result, a formal term for this kind of addiction is Pathological Internet Use (PIU) according to Roberts and Young (1998 pp. 1).

According to a research conducted by Block on the topic of internet addiction in South Korea there was revealed a series of approximately ten cardiopulmonary associate deaths that occurred in internet cafs and a non-related game murder (2007 para. 2).  The writer adds that South Korea regards internet addiction as among its most serious issues of public health.  He further points out that the government of South Korea issued a report in 2006 estimating that about 210,000 children in the country between the ages of 6 years and 19 years are affected by internet addiction and require clinical attention (2007 para. 2).  He further adds that among the affected population needing treatment, 80 will need to be placed under psychotropic medication while the rest require hospitalization.

Having revealed the link between psychiatric illnesses such as depression with alcohol and drug abuse, extensive research has also shown that depression overlaps with addictive behaviors like pathological gambling and eating disorders.  The writers further indicate that the concept of internet addiction had been accredited by mental health professionals as a serious form of addiction.  However, limited research has been conducted to determine whether it falls under the category of psychiatric illness (1998 pp. 1).  The results of the research by Young and Roberts reveal that high levels of depression are associated with internet addiction.  This suggests that clinical depression is associated with this form of addiction to a great degree.  Sufferers clinical depression are encouraged by the writers to seek medical diagnosis and help in order to avoid outcomes such as low self esteem, fear of rejection, a constant need for approval and depression which may trigger the need to increase internet use owing to the interactive packages therein that are likely to get users addicted (1998, pp.3).

According to the California State University, drug addiction, a progressive disease, is deeply rooted in human motivations and emotions (1997 para. 5).  The universitys Northridge College further insists that people do not ruin themselves, their families and other relations because they feel the need to but because they are compelled to such actions by the psychological and emotional situations that they might be experiencing at that moment.  Their actions can result in financial ruin, acts of assault, loss of respect by others or even themselves, and could even end up in a state of incarceration - something they did not envisage (1997 para. 5).

Direct neurological effects from substance abuse are seen to be more evident compared to non-substance abuse.  This can be manifested in the form of brain malfunction owing to high levels of stress.  This is because substances are taken into the body by the users which act on the brain to produce a desired outcome.  The National Institute on Drug Abuse reports that cases of stroke and brain injury are likely to occur due to excessive intake of narcotics and other drugs.  The bodys functional ability is damaged due to the excessive presence of these substances in the body (2010 para. 3).

As seen in the case of Internet addiction, excessive emotional or psychological issues associated with non-substance abuse can lead to neurological damage as the brain controls the mental balance of the individual.  Wong explains in his book, Drugs of abuse Neurological reviews and Protocols that there is evidence of inappropriate neural mechanisms that are responsible for behavioral aspects which contribute to drug addiction (2003, pp. 4).   He emphasizes that the neural mechanisms are either goal oriented or lean towards rewards.  Dense patterns of plasticity in synapses are also blamed for poor neural adaptation that results in unfavorable practices like drug compulsion (Wang, 2003 pp.13).

Substance and non-substance abuse may result in neurological injury that may be manifested in behavioral activities that suggest abnormality in code and conduct. These neurological changes, resulting from both substance and non-substance abuse, may result in chemical alterations in DNA that may end up making the individuals dependent on the substance or the habit.  The cause of neural damage is direct in substance abuse as the substances affect the neural systems directly to create the desired effect. In the case of non substance addiction, the habits affect the mind of the addict indirectly by motivating emotions that satisfy the addict.  The resulting behavioral characteristics are more or less the same. Addicts end up gaining short term satisfaction from the indulgence or being dependent on the habit or substance.

Similarities between substance and behavioral addictions are drawn owing to the fact that in most of them, initial indulgence is motivated by emotional or psychological factors like low self esteem, external pressures and feelings of self-pity and worthlessness.  The difference is seen in the different ways addicts tend to deal with their shortcomings.  Some will deal with them through binge-eating, exercising too much, alcohol and drug abuse, etc.  Variance in the ways in which individuals deal with their situations may depend on their location, availability of the substances and practices they can indulge in, and also the availability of external support groups such as families and friends who can help them deal with their problems.

The aim of the study was to determine whether making eye contact with an audience while rendering a speech directly increase the anxiety level of a person as manifested by physical changes.  The level of sweating, anxiety and speech performance were recorded in 105 participants while they maintained an eye contact with the observant and while they faced a wall upon delivery of a speech. 

The participants were grouped into four and took turns to be subject and experimenter.  A rating sheet was also used to determine the physical changes specifically sweating and anxiety level.  Both subjects and experimenter filled out the rating sheet and was handed over to a tutor for further evaluation.

Findings were measured using Biopac MP35 to record electrodermal activity and to measure skin conductance and the Acqknowledge v3.9.2 software a fully automated electro dermal response score tool was used to locate skin conductance responses visually identifies them in the record and measures them.

Physiological response in the form of anxiety was greater in eye contact than in no eye contact.  The level of anxiety was found to be greater in the eye control group as opposed to the no eye control group.    As a conclusion, there is a significant increased anxiety among people who have eye contact during a public speech compared to people who did not have eye contact.  Both groups responded that direct eye contact augmented their fear of a negative evaluation of the other person as well as becoming self-conscious. 

Introduction
The fear of public speaking is linked to the effect of negative evaluation on the levels of anxiety felt by a person when giving a speech.   Anxiety is typically perceived as a response to recognized threat (Beck  Emery, 1985) The information-processing models of anxiety have inspired cognitive theories of social phobia. They propose that cognitive biases can partially explain the etiology and effects of negative evaluation to level of performance. Research paradigms adopted from experimental cognitive psychology and social psychology had been used to investigate these hypotheses. Studies of similar area of interest were done in the past.    For instance, socially anxious people report experiencing greater anxiety in formal situations and opposite sex interactions (Dodge et al., 1987 Turner et al., 1986a).  It was also found that the size and perceived importance of the audience influence the degree of anxiety (Latane, 1981). 

A diagram of the model of anxiety in social evaluative situation starts with a notion that people with social phobia (Rapee and Heimberg, 1997, p. 744) assume that other people are inherently critical thus are more likely to evaluate them in a negative way (Leary, Kowalski  Campbell, 1988). 
Based on the findings of the past studies, it has been found out that anxiety and negative evaluation is closely associated.  This study seeks to determine whether eye contact or no eye contact play a role in increasing anxiety levels.

Methods

Participants
The participants in the study were chosen based on the following criteria students who were enrolled in PSY452 at Deakin University, who are male and female. Participants were required to take part in the study as a component of their course requirement.

Apparatus
Two different conditions were applied in the current study. One condition entailed subject and experimenter to establish a direct eye contact while the other condition was where subject and experimenter had no eye contact during the speech.

The Biopac MP35 was used to record the electro dermal activity. The MP35 uses a constant voltage technique to measure skin conductance. Acqknowledge v3.9.2 software a fully automated electro dermal response score tool was used to locate skin conductance responses visually identifies them in the record and measures them.

Procedure
Participants were organized into group of four and took turns to be the subject and experimenter.   Experiment was conducted in a cubicle of a classroom. An electrode was spread over with electro dermal gel then was affixed and taped around the second finger of the participants hand to record changes in electro dermal activity.

Subject and experimenter were required to fill in a rating sheet before the experiment pertaining to subjects sweating and anxiety level.

The observant pressed the event marker and participant was asked to relax quietly and was told to stay still for a period of 5 minutes.  After which, the following 2 minutes was when the baseline record was taken. At the end of 5 minutes, the event marker was pressed again to start the speech.

Experimenter then started to ask questions from selected topics.  The subjects were instructed to either look at the experimenter or face the wall during the speech and experimenter was required to take note on the subjects physical changes (sweating and anxiety level).  Each of the subjects was given 2 minutes to give a speech in relation to the topic.   The observant then pressed the event marker after 5 minutes to stop the speech.

Immediately right after the speech, experimenter and subjects were asked to fill in the rating sheet again to rank their level of sweating, anxiety and speech performance. Subjects were also required to indicate what they expect the experimenter would rate them in terms of sweating and anxiety what evaluation they think the experimenter would give their speech and whether the experimenter would judge them positively or negatively. Experimenter was also required to rate on the rating sheet having the same set of questions.

After all groups finished the experiment, every participant was asked to fill out the Negative Evaluation questionnaire. All data gathered were handed in to tutor for further analysis.

The mean for electro dermal activity during baseline and speech was obtained through the reading from Acqknowledge v3.9.2 software.

Results
Participants
The study was conducted based on a total of 105 participants wherein 69 are female and 36 were male as shown in Table I.  Table 2 shows participants grouped into two namely the no eye contact group with 53 subjects and the eye contact group with 52 subjects.  The number of participants was considered valid with a valid percent of 65.7 for female and a valid percent of 34.3 for male shown in Table 3. 

Table 1.  Frequencies
FrequencyPercentValid PercentCumulative PercentValid     Female
Male
Total69
36
10565.7
34.3
100.065.7
34.3
100.065.7
100.0

Table 2.  Between Subjects Factor
Value LabelNCondition        .00
1.00No eye contact
Eye contact53
52
Based on Table 3 below, a mean of 1.0189 was gathered for the no eye contact group while the other group had a mean of .8077.    It is known that the standard deviation of .72032 (female) and .74198 (male). 

Table 3.  Descriptive Statistics

ConditionMeanStd. DeviationNBl_eda_abs          no eye contact
Eye contact
Total1.0189
.8077
.9143.72032
.74198
.7353053
52
105Spe_eda_abs         no eye contact
Eye contact
Total.0000
1.5385
.7619.0000
1.86255
1.5160953
52
105
Table 4.  Multivariate Tests
EffectValueFHypothesis dfError DFSig.Period     Pillais trace
Wilk Lambda
Hotellings trace
Roys Largest Root.007
.993
.007
.007.699a
.699a
.699a
.699a1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00103.000
103.000
103.000
103.000.405
.405
.405
.405Period cond Pillais trace
Wilks Lambda
Hotellings Trace
Roys Largest Root.200
.800
.250
.25025.765a
25.765a
25.765a
25.765a1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00103.000
103.000
103.000
103.000.000
.000
.000
.000
Table 5.  Group Statistics

95 confidence intervalAnxiety RatingsMeanStd. ErrorLower boundUpper bound13.313.2182.8803.74525.012.1754.6655.360
Table 5 reflects an increase of the level of anxiety during the speech.  The baseline mean of 3.13 increased to a level of 5.012 upon delivery of the speech. 

Table 6
t-test for Equality of MeansdfSig. (2-tailed)Mean differenceDiff_Exp_Anxiety_prepost      Equal variances assumed 103.002-1.23149Equal variances not assumed75.160.002-1.23149

Table 6 shows that there is a difference of anxiety between before and during the speech.  A mean difference of -1.23149 resulted in comparison of the eye contact and no eye contact groups.  The eye contact group experienced a higher level of anxiety compared to no eye contact group.

Table 7
95 Confidence IntervalConditionMeanStd. ErrorLower boundUpper boundNo eye contact.509.081.349.670Eye contact1.173.0821.0111.335

Table 7 indicates that the direction of the main effect of condition of the eye contact group had a higher mean EDA (exploratory data analysis) than the no eye contact group.  The direction of the condition eye contact group demonstrated a higher anxiety rating than the no eye contact group.

Discussion

The research hypothesis of the effect of eye contact and negative evaluation to a persons anxiety level was supported in the study.  Participants reported a significant escalation of anxiety when eye contact is established during the speech as manifested by sweating and ratings of performance.  It is noted on the findings that both eye contact group and no eye contact group reported anxiety by the mere fact that an experimenter is observing them. 

Several tables in the findings showed differences during the pre-test and post-test ratings.  Both groups showed that there was a moderate positive correlation between the anxiety before and after the speech.  When subjects and experimenters were asked to rate their anxiety during the speech, the eye contact group reported higher rate of anxiety compared to the other group.  Vast majority of patients reported that eye contact impacted their anxiety and had identified eye contact as a

On the basis of the findings, we would suggest that subjects speech performance measured in the clarity, spontaneity, and impact of the speech and monitoring of heart rate for cardiac accelerations should also be considered.  Anxiety can greatly affect the delivery of a public speech hence further studies should be done based on this recommendation.  This finding indicates that eye contact may be a fear-related feature for socially anxious individuals in social interactions.

Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist and a Nobel Prize winner who lived in the years between 1849 and 1946 made major contribution in the field of learning by association. He is known as the scientist who discovered and theorized classical conditioning. Over the years, despite the fact that the initiator of this concept was a physiologist and not a psychologist, the concept has developed to the point that it is now a necessity for almost every psychologist regardless of whether practicing or studying to be aware of. Proponents argue that it is a practical approach of studying human behavior. A point of note however is that, in order to make a conclusive deduction of the findings either in a positive or critique point of view, it is wise for to have clear understanding of its history and development, (Hurwitz 17).

In several years of his successful career, Ivan Pavlov made great use of dogs in his studies. However it was not until the late1880s that he made landmark discoveries from dogs which he was studying at that the moment (Freidan Thomas Isodero 25). During that particular study in which he aimed to establish the relationship between salivation and digestive system, he noticed a peculiar tendency from the dogs which had been familiarized with the feeding routine. A mere presence of the assistant who used to feed the dog caused them to salivate. This intrigued Pavlov because, apart from the fact that saliva is used in aiding digestion, salivating in the absence of a meal indicated that there were other conditioning factors that elicited the kind of reaction. A piece of meat and bell was all that was required to exhaustively confirm his observation. The first clear observation was that when a dog saw and sniffed a piece of meat, the immediate reaction was to salivate. In another kind of situation where a piece of meat is not involved but sound, through the ringing of a bell, is used to stimulate the dog, the reaction was nothing to write home about. The dog would just simply turn its head towards where the sounds come from. However, if a habit of ringing a bell was developed and immediately there after feeding the dog, a more tangible reaction was observed, the sound of bell would then instantly trigger salivation from the animal. This indicated that the subject associated the sound with an on coming meal and therefore setting the whole digestive system in a preparation mode. Pavlov concluded that sound, a stimulus that has little to do with food or smell, elicited a reflexive or involuntary modification in the digestive process, (Freidan Thomas Isodero 145).

This kind of results could not be achieved unless certain situations were created and applied in ways which depended on the level of conditioning the subject was at. Before starting the classical conditioning process, an unconditioned stimulus or UCS, which is a kind of stimulus eliciting reflexive or involuntary response, had to be present. The stimulus did not involve any learning process as the subject would automatically know its outcome. In this particular situation, the piece of meat was the UCS. Another important stipulation was the presence of a stimulus which did not elicit any specific response but only an orienting or neutral response, such as the mere turning of the dogs caused by the sound of the bell. During the conditioning process, it was essential for the neutral stimulus to be presented and right after that present the unconditional stimulus, such as in the of Ivan Pavlov dog experiment, first the bell had to be rung and immediately thereafter a meal was presented. Over time the subject learned or was conditioned to associate the two (Hurwitz 43).

Finally Pavlov concluded that, the Neutral stimulus stirred a response similar to that elicited by UCS. This he validated by citing the ringing bell caused a drooling effect on the dogs. He now referred the neutral stimulus as the conditioned stimulus because, after it is paired by UCS, it provoked the dogs to salivate. The new response created by the conditioning was also given the name conditioned response. Although the conditioned response and unconditioned response look similar, there stimuli were entirely different (Freidan Thomas Isodero 147).Pavlov quickly learned that, It was important to periodically positive reinforcement the impact caused by the conditioning. If neglected or negatively reinforced then it slowly wears out (Putney 45). An example is, when the dogs regularly heard the ringing bell and for prolong period of time no meal was presented, the drilling effect that had been created gradually disappeared.

To further expound on his study, Ivan Pavlov investigated the difference that could result from varying the time procedure used to present the stimuli to his subjects. He established that by doing so different result were derived. Delayed conditioning, was his first test directed towards that mission. It was a basic procedure involving presenting the conditioned stimulus, which was the ringing bell, before the unconditioned stimulus. On same test, he continued to investigate the different impact that could be created by varying the delay either to be short or long. In the short delay, a conditioned response was presented about five seconds earlier before the presentation of the unconditioned stimulus. It was only removed after the unconditioned stimulus was presented. Long delay on the other hand involved presenting the conditioned stimulus in a relatively longer time of about thirty second before presenting the unconditioned stimulus. Pavlov established that conditioning is effective when the delay is shorter, (John and Lavond, 145). However, according to Hubert, consequent studies have contested this rule citing that effects of conditioning vary depending on the state which the respondent under scrutiny is at. Trace conditioning was the other test he conducted with a procedure almost similar to that of delay conditioning. However, unlike in the delay conditioning, the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus do not overlap, instead are conditioned stimulus is presented briefly for about one second and withdrawn without presenting any other stimuli. A gap referred to as trace interval is created before an Unconditioned stimulus is presented. The conclusion was this kind of conditioning is less effective as compared to the delayed one.

Another analysis on the impact of varying stimulus presentation time was referred to as simultaneous conditioning. In the test he presented both the conditioned and unconditioned stimulus at the same time. The main challenge faced was determining whether drooling was caused by the ringing bell or presence of food. Later however, when he opted to present the conditioned stimulus alone, he established that the kind of conditioning is ineffective. He explain this ineffective, by describe that, for the center of response or the dog to generate a conditioned response it had first to be excited by the anticipation of a unconditioned stimulus which for this particular test was missing. In Backward conditioning, another type of time variation test, the reverse happens. In this experiment the Unconditioned stimulus is the one which is presented about 5 second earlier than the conditioned stimulus. Ivan quickly established that this procedure, just like simultaneous conditioning, is weak and ineffective, (John and Lavond 148). He explain the weakness of this procedure by outlining that unlike in an ordinary forward conditioning, where the conditioned stimulus precede the unconditioned stimulus, the arrangement serve as warning to the subject that the unconditioned stimulus, the food, is about to be withdrawn and therefore leading to the absence of  conditioned response or the salivation.

The effect created by timing in stimulus presentation made Pavlov query whether time should be considered as stimulus on its own. He observed that if a response centre is familiar with the routine of presenting the unconditioned stimulus, without a doubt, a conditioned response occur even without there being a presence of any type of stimulus. For example the dogs, having gotten used to the feeding routine, when the time of feeding approached, they begun to salivate regardless of whether the bell was rung or not, (Freidan Thomas Isodero 155). This he described as temporal conditioning, which is a procedure requiring no formal conditioned stimulus but instead unconditioned stimulus is supplied at regular interval such as 30 seconds causing the respondent to adapt the routine. This is according to Hubert and Putney is evident in our day to day life, Take for instance, if an athlete get used to drinking water every thirty minutes, then automatically after half an hour failure to repeat the routine will render him or her restless.

Other than studies involving examining the impact stimulus timing has on the conditioning result, there other set of studies examined by Pavlov. One of a kind included him trying to establish the events that would lead to the disappearing of a successful conditioning. A good case in point is the one describe earlier, whereby the conditioned dog regularly induced to the ringing bell without being presented thereafter with there used to meal, resulted in the conditioned response slowly diminishing and eventually altogether disappearing. This procedure he referred to it as extinction, (John and Lavond 155). As he continued to test this effect, he noticed that persistence application of conditioned stimulus in the absence of Unconditioned stimulus might at a point provoke the initial conditioned response however at smaller magnitude and if not reinforced quickly disappears. Again he observed that when a complete extinction has occurred, conditioned response can be regain at faster rate as compared to when the conditioning was first being initiated. This is what he referred to as spontaneous recovery.

In a test which Pavlov referred to as Generalization conditioning, it was brought to his attention that, the relationship between conditioned stimuli and condition response is very essential. This he concluded after noticing his dog did not only salivate to the particular noise created by his ringing bell but also to other familiar noise. However, it was vital for the second conditioning stimuli or the familiar noise to resemble the original one. The degree of likeness determines the effectiveness of conditioning, with higher similarity producing more positive result (John and Lavond 159). An example of the application of this principle in our day to day experiance is observed in the case of a child whom, previously having been attacked by neighbors dog, from there on likely be terrified by the sight of any other dog.

Discrimination conditioning is the opposite of generalization. This is whereby the organism responds differently or does not respond at all to conditioned stimulus that has no resemblance to the original one which created the conditioning effect. An example is when Pavlov dog respond only to the ringing bell and those similar to it but not to a whistling sound (Putney 30-34).

Ivan Pavlov did not stop by presenting his conclusive study, instead he opted to dig deeper and establish how this new school of thought could be applied in the daily life outside the laboratory walls. He aimed to prove that problems associated and caused by conditioned response exist and therefore to address them principles describe in the classical conditioning could be very appropriate. Subsequent studies later on develop even a more practical application of the principles he had elaborated. The works of John .B. Watson, who lived between 1878 and 1958, is a good example. To show empirical evidence of classical conditioning, Watson used Albert who was eleven year old at the time, as the subject of the study. He presented white rats, the conditioned stimuli, paired with loud noise, the unconditioned stimulus, to the subject. From thereon Albert was not only afraid of the white rats but also showed sign of fear towards resembling white objects such as cotton wool. At the end of the study, not only was Watson successful in elaborating the process involved in behavior formation but also backed the principle of generalization conditioning. Armed with this knowledge, Watson went on to become a respected figure in the American advertising world. With his understanding he could easily pair the right set of stimulus to appeal to consumer attitudes. In modern times, businesses have found there way in the application of the works of Pavlov and the significant contribution of Watson. An example is when Toyota uses supermodels to pose on there latest luxury car hence creating a desired appeal (John and Lavond 120-130).

Another arena where the principles of classical conditioning have been broadly applied is in the development of therapy programs. By understanding the basic paradigm of classical conditioning, psychologists have been able to outline how addictions and phobia emerge (Putney 25). Desensitization, aversion and counter conditioning therapies, all based on the principles of classical conditioning are used in the modification of human behavior. Condition taste aversion is an application of Pavlov classical conditioning which is evident in our day to day life. John Garcia, through his experiment with rats brought this concept to light. In the specified study, a group of rats after drinking water were subjected to a beam of x-ray light, the conditioned stimulus, which produced a feeling of sickness, the unconditioned response. After a period of time the rats under observation refrained from drinking the water, the conditioned response, since the associated it the sickening feeling. (Putney 20-30)

One of the more profound outside the lab application of the Garcias concept is that of predator control. Tussle between environmentalist and sheep farmers over what to do with preying coyotes led to the exploring of this Pavlovian therapy as basis of solving the problem in an ethical manner. The farmers placed carcasses which were poisoned with thiamine, a tasteless but sickening drug, on the predators path. After the coyotes ate the carcass the effect of the drug took its tall on them. Even though the feedback of the farmers differed, some of them claiming that coyotes after the first attempt refrain from eating carcasses again but still continued to kill sheep while the other lot saying the prey avoided sheep meat all together, they indicated that taste aversion conditioning cause the animal to be choosy in its meal (Putney 28). The execution of aversion therapy involves pairing undesirable stimulus to the targeted habit with the intention of making the subject associate the unpleasant experience to the action. It has found common ground in both adult and children. In adult the therapy is used to combat drug addictions. For example conditioned stimuli such as are nausea producing drugs are accompanied with alcohol (UCS), with the hope the discomfort effect caused on the victim will create an aversion. In children it has been used to combat habit such as bed-wetting (Putney 30-34).

Systematic desensitization which was developed by Joseph Wolpe is another type of Pavlovian therapy that is used to counter anxiety or fear using the principle of extinction (John and Lavond 85). The process is widely applied in the treatment of phobias. Predominantly, it is used in treating the fear of open andor public places commonly referred to as agoraphobia that is associated with people suffering from anxiety disorder. An effective execution of systematic desensitization would involve replacing the phobia which is being wiped out with a positive stimulus through a classical conditioning process described as counter conditioning. By doing so, the respondent not only eliminates an unwanted response but also acquires a new response to the specific conditioned stimulus. In the deployment of systematic desensitization several successive stages are followed. First and foremost, the respondent is train to relax using a relaxation technique, progressive relaxation according to Putney being the most preferred. Secondly, the cause of fear is listed down. The idea here is to direct the respondent to face his fears in hierarchy, starting from the least fearful stimulus to the most feared one. For example, a respondent who is afraid of heights can start by merely imagining being on top of roof to climbing and eventually standing on top of a real cliff. Throughout the process the relaxation technique taught is used to elicit parasympathetic responses which are incompatible with fears. Pavlov conditioning have also proved handy in the process of improving the immune system. Various studies have shown that continuous pairing of unconditioned stimulus such as epinephrine with conditioned stimulus such as a placebo of a distinct taste and smell elicit an increase in immunity as the response conditioned (Putney 40).

The process of discovering and developing the concept of classical conditioning has however been a subject of controversies. Right from the start, the environmental situation that Pavlov subjected his dogs to was questionable. For example, claims of starving and inserting surgical tubes on the dogs for the purpose of measuring the saliva have raised issues. Watson experiment of inducing fear on baby Albert, a less than a year old infant, if applied in modern time will definitely raise eyebrows. Also hardliners environmentalist finds Garvin method of investigating the rats as infuriating. Another angle used by critiques is based on the claim that Pavlov therapy based programs such as taste aversion are short-lived and might have side effect. Perhaps the most significant and cited criticism is that, although classical conditioning claims a response is adapted from prior experience, certain respondent suffering from phobia cannot easily trace any historical event that might have triggered this. (Freidan Thomas Isodero 180-183).

The significance contribution in understanding how a behavior is formed played by Pavlov classical conditioning cannot be overemphasized. According to Putney, his studies and other ensuing studies which either aimed at validating or criticizing his works provides psychologist with bases of examining, developing and administering diagnosis to various challenges. His outstanding record in the field of physiology and psychology did not however go unnoticed as he was a warded A Nobel prize. Even with the ever changing environment, one certain thing is that the fundamentals that make us humans are highly unlikely to change and therefore studies such as this cannot be dismissed but only investigated further and improved upon.

This essay explores several realities about marriage and family counseling in order to shed light on the purpose of having therapeutic counseling specifically intended for these social groups. Marriages and families are the most important basic unit that a person can belong to. Issues that arise from these units are sensitive and even harmful to many people. In dealing with them, therapists have to be careful in assessing each members contribution to the problem while also not forgetting to deal with the potential implications of the problems to them individually. Aside from this, the significance of spirituality is also covered in this essay. Spirituality is different from religiousness. Incorporating it in the therapy of families and marriages help ease the relationship of counselors to their clients. The essay also reviewed what essential characteristics should counselors have in order to be efficient future therapists and what kind of training should they go through in order to sufficiently prepare them.

Therapeutic Counseling is a prominent and necessary reality that helps solve or address many of the problems faced by people today. In counseling, clients are given by professional counselors certain treatments and therapeutic help to guide or advise them according to whatever troubles they are going through. But many people of do not recognize or in constant denial that they need help or intervention in order for all the people involved to have a sense of understanding about their situations. Relationships among couples, marriages, and families are among the commonly focused units by counselors because most of the hardest problems a person may encounter comes from these intimate relationships. But aside from solving disputes, counseling in families and marriages also helps improve and develop the currently existing relationship too. Therapeutic counseling help evaluate and reestablish families and marriages that have been separated or are continuously being tested by difficult circumstances.

Approaches in Counseling
Family issues are sensitive realities that should be addressed by all close family members.  The marriage enrichment field is often traced to the early 1960s  (Dinkmeyer, 2007, p.314). As the years passed, different improvements and developments have been introduced to the process of counseling of marriages and family relationships in order to accommodate all the emerging problems of the society. Many scholars believe that  the gateway to all couple and family therapy (CFT) is a systematic formulation of the presenting problem of an individual, couple, or family  (Celano, Smith, and Kaslow, 2010, p.36). Systematic formulations specifically deal with familial issues regarding intimacy, sociocultural issues, family routines, and family strengths. These types of therapies target understanding the interactions of couples and family members in relational context.

Along with the changing of times, the main operation of families have also significantly evolved and changed.  Formerly family and marriage were often characterized by an autocratic relationship one is in charge and the rest follows  (Dinkmeyer, 2007, p. 315). This kind of mindset have been dramatically reformed along with the world wide advocacy of equal roles in the society. Therefore, there cannot be just one standard approach in counseling the different problems that may arise in families and marriages.  An open, congruent marriage system is often not the result of chance but rather systematic education and movement toward this goal  (Dinkmeyer, 2007, p.317). The importance of formulating  an effective marriage education program is definitely important or necessary for the achievement of ideal or lasting marriages. Dinkmeyer introduced in his work a system-based, structured approach on educating people about marriages. Training in Marriage Enrichment (TIME) is a psychological approach wherein counselors would be required to study individual behavior as it is incorporated together with how the people participate in their external human relations.  TIME teaches the necessary skills for a happy, healthy marriage in a group setting and can be applied to couples individually in couples counseling  (Dinkmeyer, 2007, p.317).

Alliance of Counselors to their Client
Counseling families is a very sensitive task not only because of the intimacy that the relationship is expected to have, but also because families are the societys most basic unit. To be a professional therapist is not an easy task. Counselors are expected to work on understanding and presenting complex aid to intimate relationships experiencing sensitive issues.  Focusing on relationships requires that therapists have a broad knowledge base as exemplified by the requirements for coursework in theoretical foundations, couple and family therapy, human development and family studies, ethics, and research (Becvar, 2008, p.181). Presence of mind, proper training, and rich education are important for every person who wants to become psychology practitioners.

The kind of relationship that should be formed between therapists and clients should be one that is established in honesty and trust. This is essentially difficult for the therapists of family issues because they are subjected to face all members of the family.  Therapeutic alliance is the quality and strength of the collaborative relationship between family members and therapist, and includes a shared commitment to the goals of therapy in the context of a positive emotional bond  (Celano, Smith, and Kaslow , 2010, p. 37). This alliance is a necessary factor for all therapists who needs to understand each family members individual problems as well as participation or role in the family.

Generally, people are purposive in their behavior. Therefore  counselors look for the purpose of behaviors within the marriage system which help or hinder the enrichment of the marriage  (Dinkmeyer, 2007, p.316). This is crucial for counselors to understand and always consider what possible intentions each individual may have for all their certain actions. Aside from assessing what particular purposes do people have for their actions, counselors also need to address the problem of how the differing point of view between partners makes a single action possible within two interpretations  (Dinkmeyer, 2007, p. 316). This human trait usually causes the most prominent disagreements in relationships. When this happens, counselors can understand that the couple have underlying more important issues to address like their failure to communicate openly or when one partner harbors mistrust towards any action the other would do. What is essentially important in a marriage counseling is that counselors encourage  an awareness and dedication to the idea that the relationship is the number one priority for both individuals  (Dinkmeyer, 2007, p.317). Facilitators or the leading therapists have the important task of making couples realize this and put into significant action this reality.

Teaching and Training how to be Counselors
To be an effective counselor, one would need to be educated with the proper values and knowledge in the practice of psychology. Counselors need crucial scholastic background in order to become significantly useful in the action of counseling familial problems. Also,  as with every profession, the field of marriage and family therapy is characterized by a unique training and socialization process for those who desire to attain full membership (Becvar, 2010, p. 1). Knowing the basic theories from scholastic inputs is not sufficient for one person to effectively address all the problems that may arise. Also,  family therapy instructors should employ a plethora of teaching techniques to guarantee the retention of critical theoretical constructs and therapeutic techniques  (Maynard, 1996, p.203). Keeping the attention of students through constantly new methods would and allow them to learn faster and for the retention of information to be easier. This would be very beneficial for students in the future when they have to face important counseling projects already.

Proper training in the form of internships are also important for would-be counselors.  Many will continue to focus on generating knowledge relative to both the training and supervision of family therapists and the practice of family therapy  (Becvar, 2010, p. 1). The program of internship is conducted to efficiently train graduates of the psychology courses.  Based on observations from the group of successful interns,  internship strengthened their career decision making, bolstered their confidence in their ability to handle the demands of faculty life, and strengthened their clinical skills  (Miller et. Al, 2010. p.77). Having a direct, first-hand experience prepares future counselors by allowing them to see the scenarios they should expect to deal with. This practice also allows them to prepare what kind of lessons they would most likely find most outside schools and how to properly address each one of them.

Aside from classroom learning and practical application through internship, students of therapy and psychology also learn immensely through their observations of their instructors or professors.  by demonstrating dedication and attention to teaching, family therapy instructors can model for future therapists the importance of thoroughness and professionalism (Maynard, 1996, p. 195).

Spirituality in Counseling
One of the most prominent idea circulating in counseling families is a theory that was often overlooked before is the application of spirituality in assessing truths about counseling. Spirituality is so important but it is  neglected in counseling practice  because not all counseling professors see the significance of this reality in dealing with intimate relationships and other related factors (Ellison, 2009, p. 190). Spirituality offers an important contribution to marriage and family therapeutic counseling, though it is often also minsunderstood. Incorporating spiritual approaches to family counseling is important because this makes the exchanges between the clients and the counselors much easier and  meaningful. Several literature have been devoted to the evaluation of spiritualitys importance especially to therapeutic counseling in marriages and family life.

The term spirituality is often misinterpreted with religiousness. But the truth is  a person can be spiritual without belonging to a religious community or participating in religious rituals (Grams, Carlson, and McGeorge, 2007, p. 150). And in its particular application to counseling, the emphasis in the intervention of the counselors would be more significantly focused to the spiritual values of their clients. Some examples of pathways to connection are through the body, through nature, through the arts, or through a Higher Power  (Ellison, 2009, p. 190). Spirituality is not always confined the definitions of religious figures, but there are times that it is.
 
Minus religious factors, spirituality can be defined as  the choice to move toward personal growth, responsibility, and relationship with others  (van Asselt and Senstock, 2009, p. 412). When one person improves his spiritual condition, he is also increasing his hope that his problems would be solved. This helps counselors to penetrate and condition the minds of their clients faster. Spirituality can also be defined as  an experience or meaning system that allows people to find connection, values, and purpose, which can be related to nature, art, meditation, prayer, religion, or a relationship with a higher power (Grams, Carlson, and McGeorge, 2007, p. 150). Counselors can gain vast information from their clients because of spirituality, and this would help them in understanding how to rightfully address whatever problems they may consult them with.

According to van Asselt and Senstock (2009),  there is evidence that more awareness and training can have positive rewards for clients when sharing their experiences, especially spiritual ones  (p. 418). This means that enhancing the abilities of counselors to deal with spiritual issues elevate their chances of understanding their clients faster. Also, clients give in faster and wholeheartedly to their therapists after feeling that they do more than listening to their problems, but actually see them from their own personal spiritual level. Clients  self-perceived competence was influenced by the counselors spiritual beliefs and spirituality training  (van Asselt and Senstock, 2009, p. 417). This boosts their minds to become more participative to whatever activities their counselors may give them. Also,  all of us have some sense of spirituality in some form and clients have the right to be able to address these issues in their therapeutic work  so therapists should learn how to deal with this in a  respectful, non imposing, and emphatic way  (Ellison, 2009, p. 190).

In addition to spirituality as an aid to counseling, some counselors also shares the existence of pastoral counseling. This type of counseling  involves acknowledging that the counselor is not the healer but that a healing energy, which is both inside and beyond the client and counselor, is present and available to be tapped into  (Davis, 2008, p. 668). Through this type of counseling, family members or married couples become more involved the spiritual and theological growth they could gain from their immersion, through the help of course of their pastoral counselors. This type of counseling aims for goal of transformation for the client from a trouble state to one characterized by well-being and just and loving relationships  (Davis, 2008, p.668).

Types of Negative Issues faced by Therapeutic Counselors
The types of problems that marriage and family counselors are supposed to deal with  are vast and very sensitive. Domestic violence, child maltreatment, homicidal ideation, and suicidal ideation are  four types of clinical crises that most novice as well as seasoned therapists find challenging  (Hodgson, Lamson, and Feldhousen, 2007, p. 36). These types of relationship problems are among the most sensitive but highly occurring problems that specifically needs the careful attention of counseling groups.

The problems in families and marriages are different per situation, but are more often rooted from the same mistakes. To deal with the most harmful realities happening to day, first we should acknowledge that  the causes of human evil are complex, largely because human beings are complex and live in complex societies  (Davis, 2008, p.665). Therapeutic counselors should be aware of how the evils of the world affects each family directly and indirectly.  Through engaging and transforming our inner systems, we also can access the insight, compassion, and courage to name and engage the external systems of our world that are sources of evil and suffering  (Davis, 2008, p. 680). Therefore, awareness and sensitivity to what effects evil realities may have to each family member is crucial and significant for the counselor to understand just what their client may need.

Sometimes, because of the large amount of negativities that one person may experience, he may feel a part of himself to get disconnected or removed from his world. Logically,  recapturing this disconnected piece can be done via introducing compassion both toward others and toward oneself  (Ellison, 2009, p. 190). Not all if us could help do this or answer to this plea immediately and only well-trained counselors can help address this dilemma of being disconnected faster and more efficiently.

How Counseling Helps
Counseling groups that are specifically made for marriages and families should be equipped with the sufficient strength and knowledge to rightfully address all types of issues that may reach them.  The first consideration is that core competencies create a path, and the direction is determined by the organizations core values (Miller, Todahl, and Platt, 2010, p. 67). Counselors should be sensitive and knowledgeable of the essential factors that are important on how to counsel problems in families and marriages.

Therapy and counseling sessions are proven to be highly successful in majority of the cases that have undergone it. Counseling helps because highly negative and conflictual family interactions may be reduced by carefully timed therapist interventions  (Celano, Smith, and Kaslow, 2010 p. 38). Therapists are given enough education and training to professionally and expertly deal with their clients concerns. Present curriculum are still being continuously improved to make the education for therapeutic counseling easier and more fitting in todays time. Marriage and family counselors play important roles in the society today. In fact,  the marital therapy will ultimately save taxpayers money through reduced divorce rates and health care costs associated with individuals experiencing divorce  (Miller, Todahl, and Platt, 2010, p. 60).

Conclusion
Therapeutic counseling, especially in the sectors of families and marriages is crucially important and necessary amidst all the growing cases of family problems that our world today faces. Marriages and families should be the most safeguarded and well taken care of basic units of the society because they are also potentially the most powerful. Counseling in family and marriage therapy requires great discipline, sensitivity, and knowledge in the part of the counselors in order to efficiently determine and address what the family or the couple just needs. There are several systems formulated to educate people about marriages and family life. But the inclusion of spirituality in the relationship of the client to their respective counselor helps immensely for the two parties to understand each other better and form positive and productive relationship in the future.