Psychology

The role of family discord with regard to child outcomes is quite important. According to Rhee and Weldman, 2002, for children and adolescents the environment is the most significant factor influencing their behavior. Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) noted that adolescents who become offenders appear to have little control over their desires, and that this lack is largely rooted in family child rearing practices. A static shows that children are at a fifty percent  greater risk of engaging in criminal acts if neglected or abused(Holmes et al,2001).
 
Families with poor communication and weak family bonds have been shown to have a correlation with childrens development of aggressivecriminal behavior (Garnefski and Okma ,1996).Loukas, Fitzgerald, Zucker and Von Eye(1999) reported anti social behaviors during preschool years in children of alcoholics were linked to later problem behaviors, supporting the continuity of anti social behavior across childhood. These researches show the influence of parent-child relationship on the criminal behavior among adolescents.
   
A common theme during childhood is that the way in which parents are able to sensitively regulate their parenting behavior based on the development needs of their children. Good parenting is the process of  promoting and supporting the child emotionally, physically, socially and intellectually. In many cases, orphaned children receive parental care from foster parents or orphanage.
 
The single family parents have escalated to 15 million in the United States most of the single family parents face an array of risks such as-from mild cognitive delays in preschooler to withdrawal and depression in older kids. In addition, a higher percentage of single mothers than single fathers are below poverty line. In such cases, economic disadvantage linked with
residential instability, which further contributes to childrens behavioral difficulties.
   
Parents are the first line of control for when children misbehave. The immediate behavior of child might be influenced by how parents discipline children. Spanking seems counterproductive for children preparing to enter school. The similar tendencies of these individuals create an environment of criminal or violent behavior.
   
Adolescents and children whose parents are uninvolved perform most poorly in all domains, as a result they also tend to have poor social skills ,low self esteem and high levels of depression. In rear cases, when children are rejected by their parents, are inadequately supervised,and grow up in homes with considerable conflict are at  greatest risk of becoming delinquents .The presence of any of the family circumstances  factors increases the chances of raising a delinquent child .Family conflict is particularly  likely to promote criminal behavior.
   
Single parents concentrate more on work in order to support themselves and their families they are likely to have difficulty providing supervision for their children. Children raised in single parent families are likely to have been exposed to such crime promoting influences such as parental conflict and alcoholism.  Poor supervision stirs up chronic stress in early stages and later it may generate delinquency.
     
Our results lend support to the idea that foundation of adolescent morality is created through the family. This study also indicates that parent child relationships influence on the criminal behavior of adolescents a composite of the household structure and the quality of parental relationships. Reductions in delinquency between the ages of fifteen and seventeen years appear to be related to friendly interaction between teenagers and their parents, which seem to promote stronger family bonds, school attachment and a dip in delinquency. Also, programs that aid youth who reside in areas of high risk delinquency or for juvenile offenders must be undertaken simultaneously.

Time has gone when mentally ill patients received mere medical care from healthcare professionals. More intervention has to be sought to help our individuals suffering from mental illnesses. One of these interventions is the avoidance of stigmatization towards the mental illnesses. Most of the problems faced by mentally-ill patients are caused by those around them, their family members, friends and other relatives (Fink  Tasman, 1992). Although it is against the medical ethics to mistreat mentally ill patients, some healthcare professionals have been found to cause stigma among these patients. The patients need love from all the people around them. Mentally ill patients need care and compassionate that will make them feel a sense of belonging (Fink  Tasman, 1992). The activities which they carry out do not consciously come out of their minds, but they are influenced by the mental state of their minds. This is reason enough to have a different perception towards them and loving them as members of the society.
Stigma causes mentally ill patients to be marked out as being different from the rest and also evokes some form of authority. Mental illnesses stigmatization has increased to levels more than the way cancer and epilepsy used to be stigmatized (Fink  Tasman, 1992). This has often resulted to discrimination against individuals suffering from the illnesses. Stigma is the leading obstacle that makes the mentally ill patients not to improve their qualities of lives. In the society, there are various attitudes held by people towards the mentally ill patients. These attitudes have even worsened the problem of caring for the mentally sick.  Stigmatization of mental illnesses has widely been the reaction from the members of the society and because of this reason the mental sickness issue has in large part been avoided. We try to develop a negative attitude to someone who may appear different from us mostly in a manner of negative stereotype. Any person who may present values which the society judges as negative is definitely stigmatized. The mentally ill patients have always reported that the barrier to a satisfying and complete life is stigma. The way we judge them and the manner we relate with them in a negative way has made their lives to be tasteless.  In general, the modern society does not feel comfortable dealing with or talking about mental illness. Unlike other diseases such as cancer or heart disease, mental illness is not perceived as some illness which can be treated. We always relate mental illness to bad omen in the family or some strange spiritual correlations. Due to misunderstanding about mental illnesses, we have come to view mentally sick patients as potentially dangerous and of weak character.  We often try to avoid the mentally sick people getting close to us yet they truly need our help. They need us to dress them up when they are naked. They dearly need us to feed them when they are hungry in order to keep up the energy needed in their bodies for performing tasks. If they dont eat they will not even realize they are hungry but get weak and weaker. It is therefore our responsibility to try helping them in day today activities such as feeding, bathing and dressing.

The only sure way that we can fight stigma in mental illnesses in the societies is through having enough knowledge about mental illnesses. Having the facts about mental illnesses will help solve the problem of stereotyping mentally ill patients. We should take it as a normal reaction when mentally ill individuals present some behavior. Even in normal situations, normal individuals get upset or sometimes get over depressed. In some situations, healthy humans may present signs of overreactions and sometimes thinking that everyone out there is up to get them and cannot cope with the situation. These are signs typical to mentally ill individuals which are also common to normal individuals. The only difference among the mentally ill individuals is that these actions and feelings become more overwhelming and enveloping.

It is necessary for us to understand that there is no specific way for developing mental illnesses and that anyone can be mentally sick. After we have understood this important element, we will no longer have any stigmatization against the mentally ill individuals. Genetic factors have been the most leading cause of mental illnesses and one does not choose which genes he or she should inherit from the parents. It is purely a natural phenomenon which no one can choose to become it is entirely directed by the way our genetic material, the DNA works. Sometimes, we should blame ourselves on the causes of mental illnesses such as severe child abuses, torture, war, poverty, abandonment or neglect, loss and isolation. The actions we take on other people can greatly cause mental illnesses but once they develop the condition, we feel that they have become different from us.

In general, no mater how individuals may develop serious mental illnesses, there is always a chance for them to have a productive and healthy life. There are always interventions that we should make to avoid stigmatizing mental illnesses because stigmatization is the leading cause of depriving mentally ill individuals of happy life.

Nothing gives one person so much advantage over another as to remain
always cool and unruffled under all circumstances.Thomas Jefferson

Abstract
Biofeedback is an alternative therapy where instead of drugs various scientific instruments are used to measure, amplify, and feed back physiological information to the patient being monitored. This information is then used by the patient to gain self regulation of the physiological process being monitored. Biofeedback helps by setting various set points to newer levels thereby achieving desired response. The patient is taught to control the physiologic affect of various stressful conditions as well as various pathological conditions in the body. The report also takes a look at the mechanism of biofeedback as well as various theories and philosophy of biofeedback. It also takes a detailed look at theoretical foundation of whole body breathing and exercise and how its beneficial for the patients. The report analyses and suggests the process of biofeedback for Thomas who presents with extreme stress and anxiety and finally also reviews a review article showing the beneficial clinical effect of biofeedback on incontinence.

Introduction
Oxford Dictionary (Oxford Dictionary) defines stress as a state of affair involving demand on physical or mental energy. Stress is the normal physiological response to a stressful stimulus resulting in release of hormones, cortisone and adrenalin. Certain amount of stress is normal and beneficial for the survival however when the stress becomes too much it may adversely affect the normal functioning of human body warranting interventions from the experts. Stress management is a specialized science that uses many scientific methods. This paper takes a close look at some of those methods namely biofeedback, whole body breathing and exercise. The paper also analyses a case scenario and a research article.

1.1 Mechanisms of biofeedback
According to the Free Dictionary (Free Dictionary) , Biofeedback is defined as a patient-guided treatment that teaches an individual to control muscle tension, pain, body temperature, brain waves, and other bodily functions and processes through relaxation, visualization, and other cognitive control techniques. The consortium (2008) of Association for Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback (AAPB), Biofeedback Certification Institution of America (BCIA), and the International Society for Neurofeedback and Research (ISNR) (2008) define biofeedback as, a process that enables an individual to learn how to change physiological activity for the purposes of improving health and performance. Precise instruments measure physiological activity such as brainwaves, heart function, breathing, muscle activity, and skin temperature. These instruments rapidly and accurately feed back information to the user. The presentation of this information often in conjunction with changes in thinking, emotions, and behavior supports desired physiological changes. Over time, these changes can endure without continued use of an instrument

1.2 Physiology of Biofeedback
Human body has an excellent regulatory system brought about by certain hormones released in response to various stimuli. Typically the body responds either by a flight response brought about by cortisone or by a fight response brought about by adrenalin. Human brain especially the hypothalamus and limbic system control the secretion of these hormones and have variable set points. Under normal condition the body maintains a perfect homeostasis. For example under normal circumstances the human heart will beat at a rate of 60 - 80 beats per minute. This heart rate is regulated by sympathetic nerves and parasympathetic nerves both working in perfect harmony. A sudden stimulus such as fear or anger will stimulate sympathetic over activity resulting in an increase in the heart beat (tachycardia). Alternatively certain activities such as sleep, meditation and relaxation will stimulate parasympathetic system resulting in a slowing of heart rate (bradycardia). 

Biofeedback is an alternative therapy where instead of drugs, various scientific instruments are used to measure, amplify, and feed back physiological information to the patient being monitored. This information is then used by the patient to gain self regulation of the physiological process being monitored.  By actually seeing his  her bodys reaction to pain, worry or anxiety, patient can learn to interrupt the cause-and-effect mechanism. During the biofeedback training, patient may see an actual link between the psychological activity and its affect on the breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, skin temperature, perspiration, muscle tension and brain activity. Biofeedback training can provide extremely important insight into physiology. When a change in the functioning of body systems is desired for health reasons, it may be easier to bring it about by methods that stimulate a cluster of physiologic systems.

The idea of using biofeedback training to modify illness follows naturally from demonstrations that people can learn to control responses such as heart rate (Levene H I, Engel B T, Pearson J A 1968), blood pressure (Shapiro D, Tursky B, Gershon E, et al 1969), vasomotor response (Roberts A H, Kewman D G, MacDonald H, 1973), and EEG frequency (Kamiya J 1969). Biofeedback training has produced effects in conditions as varied as hypertension (Elder ST, Ruiz ZR, Deabler H L, et al, 1973) and epilepsy (Sterman M B, Friaz L 1972)

Biofeedback therapy always involves a therapist, a patient, and a monitoring instrument capable of providing accurate physiological information. Generally, a session for training in biofeedback takes 30 to 60 minutes. During one of these sessions, the therapist places electrical sensors on different parts of the body in order to monitor the bodys responds to stress. These responses, e.g. muscle contractions, trigger a response with the equipment being used for monitoring, such as a beeping sound. This way, the person being trained in biofeedback can begin to make associations between the bodys responses with the way the body is functioning

1.3 How Biofeedback produce a relaxing state of mind and body
An Electroencephalogram (EEG) can also be used in biofeedback training. The EEG is capable of monitoring brain waves. Three types of waves are important the alpha rhythm, measured from the back of the head, is between eight and twelve cycles per second. Alpha waves typically accompany drowsy, relaxed states where the mind is drifting in a somewhat unfocused manner. Alpha waves are associated with experiences such as relaxing, passive, anxious, letting go, submissive, high, pleasant, etc. According to Kasamatsu A. and Hirai T,( n d) The beta rhythm is faster, between 18 and 30 cycles per second and is often present in abundance in the brainwave tracings of experienced meditators during their meditation, and sometimes outside of it as well. (Kasamatsu A. and Hirai T, n d)

According to Dr. Gary Schwartz (1975), one of the most important things to realize when trying to influence various bodily systems is that they typically operate in patterns, something, which in the first flush of enthusiasm about biofeedback, may not have been properly appreciated. Schwartz (1975) found, for instance, that he could train a subject in his lab to reduce his blood pressure a few points in response to a signal sent to him whenever his blood pressure lowered itself even slightly, but if the subject was taught this and nothing else, his blood pressure would go down while his heart rate remained the same. Biofeedback can be applied to brain waves as well as to other physiological systems to produce a relaxed state. A subject who is hooked up to an electroencephalograph (EEG) machine need only attend to a signal which goes on when their brain is producing a strong burst of the desired type of brain wave and with this information can usually learn to produce the desired brain-wave pattern on command, often within fifteen sessions or less.

1.4 Theories of Biofeedback
Various theories pertaining to biofeedback are as follows

The Operant Conditioning Model
Early researchers such as Skinner B F (1950) applied the methods, language, and goals of animal research to biofeedback training with humans termed and termed is as operant conditioning model of learning that focus on concepts such as the stimulus. Many researchers have assumed direct parallels between human learning and laboratory animal learning. Some researchers postulate that biofeedback acts like a reinforcer and the subjects who do not have it seem to be extinguishing more rapidly than subjects who do. From this perspective, voluntary changes such as reduced muscle bracing and lowering of blood pressure are strengthened by reinforcing consequences and thus being monitored as feedback display.

The Drug Model
The drug model (Furedy, 1985, p. 159) asserts that biofeedback treatment corrects symptoms like a drug. Application of the drug model to biofeedback training results in conceptual issues and research designs unique to the model that have occurred repeatedly in biofeedback research. It is assumed that like a drug, biofeedback has specific effects and that these specific effects must be demonstrated independently of any other non-specific effects. In addition, the drug model recognizes a potential placebo effect, and must be controlled for or eliminated
 
The cybernetic model
The cybernetic model (Biofeedback Concepts) proposes that biofeedback is like a thermostat. The components of a thermostat system include a set point or goal, system variable or what is controlled such as room temperature, negative feedback in the form of corrective instructions and positive feedback such as commands to continue action. From this perspective the biofeedback training supplements a patients proprioception bringing about a poorly functioning system variable such as blood pressure under better control.

Placebo model
Therapists (Furedy, 1985, p. 159) using the Placebo model believe that biofeedback produces nonspecific effects, like a placebo owing to the patient beliefs.

2.1 Theoretical foundations of whole body breathing and exercise
Respiratory biofeedback provides many health benefits

Efficient breathing brings more air into the lungs thereby increasing oxygen delivery to the brain, improving various neurological imbalances.

It can increase production of alpha waves that reduce harmful stress hormones, especially cortisol. It balances the autonomic nervous system and promotes muscle relaxation.

Respiratory feedback can help restore and improve normal breathing. Improper breathing is often associated with brain and spinal cord injuries and is sometimes a hidden problem even in relatively healthy people.

It can help improve the function of the diaphragm and abdominal muscles. Because of its effect on the brain and nervous system, respiratory biofeedback can also help improve the function of other muscles in the body as well, and help reduce pain.

It has been observed that many people who were unable to produce certain healthy brain waves also had abnormal breathing patterns. Brain wave activity provides useful information on brain function. Understanding some basic information about brain waves is an important component of respiratory biofeedback.  An analysis through brain mapping such as the quantitative EEG (QEEG), areas of the brain can be trained to function better through biofeedback, often referred to as neurofeedback. The ability to produce alpha waves is associated with an overall healthy brain and body, especially in relation to controlling stress. Alpha waves can reduce high levels of the stress hormone cortisol, and help balance the autonomic nervous system. The human brain produces large number of alpha waves when it is relaxed, creative, meditating and happy. The inability to produce alpha waves is abnormal.

Conditions such as diabetes, inadequate sleep, nutritional imbalance and very high levels of stress hormones can impair the ability to produce alpha waves. For these reasons, main focus of respiratory biofeedback is the creation of alpha waves.

2.2 Whole Body Breathing (WBB)
The approach of whole-body breathing (WBB) follows various principles that allow for dealing with a high level of uncertainty and complexity in the etiology of complaints (Dixhoorn, 2008, p 55). The process takes a systems view of breathing as a starting point and, the whole-body involvement of breathing approach allows one to search for and test the presence of functional or dysfunctional patterns of breathing. The approach is based on the self-regulation of tension, which integrates the usual forms of self-regulation and completes it by adding passive, internal self-regulation (Dixhoorn, 2008, pp104108). Whole Body Breathinginvolves the entire respiratory system and expands the lungs to maximum.  The complete breath is not just deep breathing it is the deepest possible breathing using accessory respiratory muscles including that of abdomen. In this type of breathing a person actually retrain the muscles surrounding the entire respiratory system thus increasing his VO2 max, maximal oxygen uptake even when one is not exercising. In this practice person focuses on what he she feels physically with each inhale and exhale. The person identifies what is moving and how to expand beyond a normal shallow breath. This can lead to profound awareness, altered states of consciousness, ecstasy and peace. In this stress-free state the body releases chemicals, fires neurons in the brain and makes new associations to life. Breathing and relaxation therapy bring about a patients attention to himself and his inner experiences, and demonstrate him ways to induce a clear and perceptible change within himself. Internal self-regulation and body awareness became realities. It is clear that an attention shift (Dixhoorn, 2008, pp104108) and subsequent reduction of mental tension occurred, as well as a change in posture. Both are important to restore a sense of self-confidence, which helped reduce anxiety and worries about the future.

2.3 Mechanism of whole body breathing and exercise
By taking deep breaths and exercising the person brings both the cerebra hemispheres in synchronization. The brain waves change from Beta to Alpha, Theta and even Delta waves. Each of these waveforms stimulates different effects to the whole body. As already mentioned the alpha waves are associated with relaxation with the eyes closed and the mind moderately active. The Theta state is the state of healing, repairing and perhaps even asleep. The Delta state the brain wave activity that brings one the feelings of being aware of connected to all things and have a complete oneness with life itself. Pure joy and bliss are felt in this state and one can even explore the subconscious and super-conscious within this realm. It is similar to lucid dreaming only one is not asleep (Dixhoorn, 2008, p 55-56).

2.3 Uses and Contraindications
Breathing training has been widely used as a component of treatment packages for panic disorder (Telch et al., 1993 Wilhelm  Margraf, 1997). Khan, Staerk, and Bonk (1973), used a combination of biofeedback and other reinforcement techniques, trained asthmatic children to reduce experimentally induced bronchospasm. There are many beneficial effects of whole body breathing however there are some contraindications such as
Exercise induced asthma
Pneumothorax
Abnormality of chest wall such as kypho scoliosis or lardosis.

3.0 The case study
Thomas, the 45-year-oldclient a manager at a local food store has been having severe anxiety of losing his job. On top of that he has the responsibility of raising two teenage sons at this difficult period of their own adolescence related issues. The matter is further complicated by Thomass mothers illness. No wonder he presents with the symptoms of extreme stress and anxiety. The best treatment modality for this stage of Thomass illness is Biofeedback. Biofeedback is a clinically-proven therapy that uses biofeedback equipments. Personal biofeedback training is an effective treatment for anxiety disorders that produces results comparable to those achieved by relaxation procedures like meditation and Progressive Relaxation.

3.1 Mechanism
Biofeedback training methods may combine cognitive behavior therapy (CBT), which is a form of psychotherapy, with one or more kinds of biofeedback training, including (Alternative medicine zone)
EEG biofeedback (brain electrical activity)
EMG biofeedback (skeletal muscle activity)
Heart rate variability biofeedback (timing between heartbeats)
Respiratory biofeedback (breathing patterns)
Skin conductance biofeedback (sweat gland activity)
Temperature biofeedback (blood flow through small arteries)

3.1 Procedure
Thomas should be advised to undergo biofeedback sessions. He should be motivated and should be explained about the whole procedure. Thomas will have to be evaluated by a medical practitioner to rule out medical diseases and medications that can produce the symptoms of anxiety. The therapist may conduct a psycho physiological profile that monitors, breathing, EEG, finger temperature, heart rhythm, skeletal muscle activity, and skin conductance during resting, mild stressor, and recovery conditions using biofeedback electrodes. The psycho physiological profile will enable his biofeedback provider to develop an individualized training program to correct abnormal physiological changes associated with his anxiety episodes. Frequent findings during biofeedback stress tests of typical patients with anxiety disorders include
Shallow, rapid breathing
Imbalances between fast-wave (beta rhythm) and slow-wave (alpha and theta rhythm) activity in the EEG
Constriction of the small arteries of the fingers
Reduced heart rate variability
Contraction of muscles in the upper shoulders, neck, and forehead
Increased sweat gland activity

During a biofeedback session, a therapist will apply electrical sensors to the different parts of his body. These sensors will monitor his bodys physiological state, such as brain waves, skin temperature or muscle tension. This information will be fed back to Thomas via cues, such as a beeping sound or a flashing light. The feedback will teach him to change or control his bodys physiological reactions by changing his thoughts, emotions and behavior. This way he can reduce his symptoms of anxiety and stress.  For example biofeedback can pinpoint tension in his neck muscles that might be causing headaches. He would then learn to invoke positive physical changes in his body, such as relaxing those specific muscles, to reduce the pain. The ultimate goal for him would be to learn these relaxation techniques and use them at home on his own. A typical biofeedback session would last for approximately 30 to 60 minutes. The length and number of sessions will be determined by his condition and how quickly he learns to control his physical responses. He may need a series of 10 sessions or so.

3.2 Types of biofeedback for Thomas
The therapist may use different biofeedback techniques depending on his overall health status and objectives. Biofeedback techniques include (Alternative medicine zone)

Electromyography (EMG) biofeedback. This type gives information about bodys muscle tension so that one can practice relaxation.

Temperature (thermal) biofeedback. The Sensors attached to patients fingers or feet measure the skin temperature. Under stress the temperature often drops which can be read by the sensor and Thomas can be prompted to begin relaxation techniques.

Galvanic skin response training. Sensors measure the activity of the sweat glands and the amount of perspiration on the skin, thereby alerting one to anxiety.

Heart rate variability biofeedback. This type of biofeedback, commonly used in commercial devices, helps one control his  her heart rate in an effort to improve blood pressure, lung function, and stress and anxiety.

It is expected that biofeedback will be helpful to Thomas as it is likely to help him control his symptoms as well as reduce the amount of medication he would require. Eventually, Thomas may be able to practice the biofeedback techniques on his own. On the downside, learning biofeedback can take a lot of time, and Thomas may get impatient and disappointed. The treatment could be expensive too. An alternative to biofeedback could be trying other less expensive relaxation techniques, such as yoga.

4.0 Article Review
Biofeedback Therapy for Incontinence (altmd.com)
Overview
This recent review article demonstrates the efficacy of biofeedback training to restore control of pelvic floor muscles.

4.2 Hypothesis
The hypothesis of this article is that, Pelvic muscle biofeedback is effective in treating fecal incontinence and urinary incontinence in men and women.

Incontinence
Fecal incontinence involves the involuntary release of wastes due to impaired control of the rectal sphincters. The rectum contains two rings of muscle called rectal sphincters that control the elimination of stools. The internal rectal sphincter opens to admit feces when pressure builds inside the rectum. Normally, one can postpone a bowel movement by intentionally constricting the external rectal sphincter. In fecal incontinence, patients lose control over this sphincter and cannot prevent voiding. According to the website altmd.com, the prevalence of fecal incontinence is 2.2. Fecal incontinence is eight times more common in women than men since childbirth is its most frequent cause.

Causes of incontinence are
Rectal sphincter damage due to vaginal delivery and surgery
Congenital abnormalities that damage the spinal cord
Inflammatory conditions
Medical conditions like diabetes mellitus, stroke, spinal cord trauma, and neurodegenerative disorders

Methodology
After medical evaluation to determine the cause of patients fecal incontinence, a biofeedback practitioner teaches the patient to control elimination by using muscle and pressure sensors to help the patient to increase external rectal sphincter strength (altmd.com). This helps prevent the unwanted loss of feces and to develop internal cues so that signals from stretch receptors in the rectal wall will contract the external rectal sphincter to prevent leakage. The process also helps patients to increase the strength of pelvic floor muscles.

For urinary incontinence, biofeedback therapy uses computer graphs or lights as a teaching tool to help the patients identify and learn to control the correct muscles. Biofeedback helps patients to locate the pelvic muscles by changing the graph or light when the patient squeezes the right muscle. Optimal biofeedback therapy includes visualization of both pelvic and abdominal muscle movement, thus a two channel system is preferable. Multi-channel systems can allow for both pressure and electromyography (EMG) channels. These systems can allow the clinician to be most versatile in the approach to biofeedback. The instrument used for delivering biofeedback therapy must be appropriate for the patients. For older persons, a systemthat has auditory components must have a lower frequency sound which the aging ear can appreciate.

4.6 Significance
Biofeedback instructions can teach a majority of patients to regain bowel control. The website (altmd.com) quotes (AAPB), where a recent review of biofeedback clinical trials found that biofeedback achieved a 67-74 success rate. The biofeedback therapy for fecal incontinence has the third-highest rating of probably efficacious (AAPB). Similarly Biofeedback techniques can help most patients regain control of urination. In another study (altmd.com), training using biofeedback devices reduced incontinence episodes 75.9-82 in about 5 sessions.

Middaugh et al (1989) report Four male subjects with post stroke urinary incontinence associated with an average 1.6 to 7.5 accidental voiding per week, participated in an outpatient study with a 4-week scheduled-voiding baseline, 2 to 5 sessions of biofeedback-assisted bladder retraining, and 6- to 12-month follow-up. All four subjects achieved and maintained continence thereby underlying the importance of biofeedback in incontinence.

Conclusions
Biofeedback is an alternative therapy where instead of drugs various scientific instruments are used to measure, amplify, and feed back physiological information to the patient being monitored. This information is then used by the patient to gain self regulation of the physiological process being monitored. Biofeedback helps by setting various set points to newer levels thereby achieving desired response. The patient is taught to control the physiologic affect of various stressful conditions as well as various pathological conditions in the body. The report also takes a look at the mechanism of biofeedback as well as various theories and philosophy of biofeedback. It also takes a detailed look at theoretical foundation of whole body breathing and exercise and how its beneficial for the patients. The report analyses and suggests the process of biofeedback for Thomas who presents with extreme stress and anxiety and finally also reviews a review article showing the beneficial clinical effect of biofeedback on incontinence.

Many people remember with crystal clarity the content of all that they initially heard concerning the news of what can be referred to as a life changing occasion, for instance, the place they were, the people they were with as well as the things which they were doing in that particular place and time. Flashbulb memories are characteristically vivid, concrete, precise and long-lasting memories of a particular circumstance involving a persons discovery of shocking and outrageous events(Brown  Kulik, 1997). Flashbulb memories have a number of distinctive features which include place, ongoing activity, own effect, others effect, and aftermath. Flashbulb memories are believed to be very resistant to the idea of being forgetful or not remembering. Perhaps, the major flashbulb memory determinants are philosophical surprise, a high degree of consequentiality and may be emotional stimulation.

Flashbulb memories are instantly stored and retained for a lifetime. These memories are normally associated with vital historical or autobiographical events such as, the bombing of Hiroshima or the assassinations of J. F. Kennedy, Lincoln and Martin Luther King Junior. The emotional arousal at the moment that the event was registered in mind is what makes the flashbulb memory special. It is the emotions elicited by a flashbulb memory event that increase the ease to recall the event in great detail. The major reason that the flashbulb memories are easily remembered is the likelihood with which these memories are retold over and over again. However, some of these memories are not normally accurate.

Biological research has related certain neural systems to emotional influence on memory. Cross-species examinations show that the arousing of emotions leads to neurohormonal alterations, which also affect the amygdala. The amygdala controls the storage, encoding and retrieval of HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiEpisodic_memory o Episodic memoryepisodic memory (Fiske  Taylor, 1991). These memories are retrieved in the future with a highly developed recollective experience, similar to recollection of flashbulb memories. The amygdala, as a result, could be vital in the encoding as well as the memories retrieval for emotional happenings. The seriousness of the particular incident experienced by an individual is a better indicator which assists so much in creating a flashbulb memory. Strong emotions carried with certain events have found to form good basis for the formation of such flashbulb memories. 

Factors that Determine Accuracy
There has been intense debate about accuracy of flashbulb memories. One concern is that the flashbulb memories could decline as time goes by time, the same way everyday memories will be found to behave or respond with time. A lot of works of research done on flashbulb memories, on the other hand, have asserted that they are indeed very accurate. These kinds of researches are studies are intended to identify the grounds where flashbulb memories are found to be more accurate and precise than the rest of the memories of everyday. It has been put in books that the uniqueness of an event, its significance, the outcome, personal participation in the event together with proximity promotes the accuracy as well as the ease of remembering the flashbulb memories.

Autobiographical Memory Correlation
Flashbulb memory has time and again been classified as another form of HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiAutobiographical_memory o Autobiographical memoryautobiographical memory, which is described as a memory for everyday life happenings and events of a person. Autobiographical happenings missing strong emotions, like a party, were compared with incidents which arouse emotions that were taken as flashbulb memories. The memory for the sensation without autobiographical events was not found to have such accuracy as that which had emotionally arousing occurrences like that of the death of Princess Diana. It therefore concludes that flashbulb memories were accurately recalled over everyday autobiographical events. The memories of the  911 World Trade Center assault was related with memories of each and every other day, showing that after one a year or so, there was considerable resemblance between the first and the succeeding recollection of the information for the 911 invasion. This shows very good preservation, as compared to the less relationship for each and every day memory (Davidson, Cook  Glisky, 2006). Flashbulb memories were therefore more accurately and easily recalled than the daily autobiographical events.

Consistency with Time
Different works of research have challenged flashbulb memories indicating that they are not reliable or even steady over a lengthy period of existence. For instance, a study carried out on the flashbulb memories recollection for the HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiChallenger_Space_Shuttle o Challenger Space ShuttleChallenger Space Shuttle calamity incident sampled two sets of autonomous subjects on a date near the event, and another at almost eight months after (Whittington, 2010). A small number of subjects had correct flashbulb memories concerning the incident past eight months. Taking into consideration the participants who only recalled the news source, place, together with whatever was going on, some researchers found out that not more than 35 had comprehensive memories. Another different research which aimed at examining the memories of the participants concerning the HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiChallenger_Space_Shuttle o Challenger Space ShuttleChallenger Space Shuttle blast showed that even though those who participated were very certain about their reminiscences for the unpleasant incident, their memories were however not precise three years later after the event occurred (Whittington, 2010).

None of these studies considered the level of importance of the Challenger disaster to participants, instead, they were assumed. It is consequently safe to imagine that the accurateness of the flashbulb memories possibly may have been influenced by lack of importance or impact of the occurrence to those who participated, instead of just being as a result of time passage. Yet another study conducted concerning the HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiChallenger_Space_Shuttle o Challenger Space ShuttleChallenger Space Shuttle tragedy did take into account the levels of significance of the event to all those who participated, and realized that flashbulb memories were somewhat correct after a nine months period with almost 90 of the subjects precisely remembering the location, the news source, activity as well as their instant reaction after getting the news of the disaster (Whittington, 2010).

Significance of the Event
It has also been realized that the rehearsal or retelling of personally significant events enhances the accuracy of flashbulb memories. Personally noteworthy events have a propensity to be practiced more on a regular basis than the events which are non-significant. A study performed concerning flashbulb memories of the earthquake in HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiLoma_Prieta_earthquake o Loma Prieta earthquakeLoma Prieta showed that the people who compared and shared their individual experiences with other people repeatedly had a superior remembrance of the incident when compared to the subjects of Atlanta who did not have a reason to discuss the way through which they got the news (Neisser  Winograd et.al, 1996).

Therefore, the rehearsal of personally significant events can be instrumental in developing accurate flashbulb memories. There has been more evidence that describe that personal significance of an event is an influential predictor of flashbulb memories. In addition, a study carried out concerning the flashbulb memory pertinent to the stepping down of the British Prime Minister, HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiMargaret_Thatcher o Margaret ThatcherMargaret Thatcher, discovered that many  UK people had flashbulb memories even after a year following her resignation. The reports of their memories were described by spontaneous, accurate and thorough remembrance of the details of the event (Frostrup, 2007). However, few non- citizens of UK had flashbulb memories one year down the line Margaret stepped down.

Distinctiveness of an Event
Some occurrences are one of their own kinds and also unique, whereas others carry with them usual happenings, commonplace, or are may be like to a lot that has taken place previously. The uniqueness of an occurrence or event is taken to be a chief contributor to how accurate the flashbulb memories can be. The flashbulb memory accounts that have been acknowledged and thought to be outstandingly correct have been exceptional as well as distinctive from memories of everyday. In the 1989 earthquake of Loma, higher correctness and simplicity for the remembrance of the catastrophe was recorded in all those who participated and specifically who went through distinguishing experiences in the time of the incident, frequently including far-reaching disturbance in their usual activities.

Significance
The severity of the instant reaction of emotions is taken to be the chief factor of establishing flashbulb memories. Its effect in forming the flashbulb memories is far much more than the consequence of the event. In President Reagans case of his attempted murder in 1981, participants accurately recounted the incident in detail eight months later. Their flashbulb memories were clear despite minimal or lack of consequence the incident had on them. This study focused on the result of learning about the flashbulb incident and not the extent to which accuracy is affected by the consequence of being involved in the incident. Some people therefore had no idea about the injury sustained and its eventuality. A model of flashbulb memories state that intensity of emotional reaction is largely influenced by the consequence of the incident. The far-reaching result is indeed a significant feature in the formation as well as the maintenance of flashbulb memory. 

Direct participation and Immediacy
Many works of research have proved that the individuals who form part of the flashbulb incident are found with more precise recollections when contrasted with those   people who were not directly involved in the incident. For instance, the recollections of the individuals who directly encountered the HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiTurkey o TurkeyTurkey HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiMarmara o MarmaraMarmara earthquake had more correct recollections of that particular event in with more details than the people who did not have a direct experience. In this study, most of the participants who were victims recalled more details about the earthquake compared to those who were not directly affected by the earthquake, and rather were informed through the news (Wiley, 2003).

A study that was performed concerning the terrorist attacks of September 11 indicates that closeness plays a significant part in the correctness of remembering flashbulb memories. Three years later after the occurrence, participants were requested to get back memories of the 911 attack, as well as the memories of other individually selected events of control in that specific year. In the time of the attacks, a number of the participants were in the business district HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiManhattan o ManhattanManhattan, nearer to the HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiWorld_Trade_Center o World Trade CenterWorld Trade Center, whereas some were a distance away. The participants who were closer to downtown easily recalled more emotionally significant detailed memories than the participants who were away (Davidson  Glisky, 2006)

Long Term Memories
Long-term memory can be described as a memory could possibly last for as less as few days or even as long as for many decades.  It is different from the short-term memory in matters of structure and function. Unlike in flashbulb memories, there is not any much information regarding the mechanisms of biology behind long term memories. What is basically known is the long term potential which includes a change in the physical on the structure of the neurons. That aside, the long term memory despite having a capability of storing information for long, is also subjected to the process of forgetting what has been stored in a natural fading manner.  Therefore, several retrievals could be required for these long term memories to exist for many years which also depend on the processing depth.

Conclusion
From the entire discussion in this paper, there are two main conclusions that can be drawn. First of all, it is to a certain extent clear that mixing the theory of emotion with theories concerning flashbulb memory creation, development and maintenance is productive. Combining both approaches however is helpful in learning concerning memory as it happens in day to day life. Secondly, the findings underscore the contribution of social factors in memory formation and maintenance. Flashbulb memories therefore are a consequence of the sense of emotions with which individuals tend to respond to the getting of information that was not expected and that has a lot of significance and meaning to them. Social factors improve the individual flashbulb memory by uniting existing memory traces. In essence, talking about the event and having the media exposure improves the memory for reception context.

In summary, this discussion suggests that flashbulb memories should be considered as a special kind of memory whose accuracy is subject to various social factors. Despite the fact that people can repeatedly recreate in their mind their piece by piece response to a specific flashbulb memory, the memory itself is not as accurate as it appears. People habitually explain a particular event in a different way at some point in time when compared to another time such as immediately after the event took place as well as a few days later after the occasion took place. Long term memories on the other hand exist to store information for retrieval in the future or later. On the other hand, when information is retrieved from memory, we cannot access a replica, only a reconstruction. The memories we have are fluid, not really static. This means they change due to our present and existing beliefs as well as perceptions concerning the past, where we are today together with the future. A memory is not just a snap or clip of audio, but instead becomes colored through the thoughts together with the feelings that we have at the time, and in addition our current convictions and beliefs concerning what the memory is supposed to represent. For flashbulb memories, particular brain structures contributing to the creation of flashbulb memories have been established by researchers although there is no particular individual that has an idea concerning the entire process. Schools of thought have the idea that a flashbulb memory could be created through a historical activity of a brain machinery which evolved to gather information concerning emotional as well as cognitive data and information pertinent to  the continued existence of a group or a particular individual.

This essay compares and contrasts projective tests from objective psychological tests through the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Test (MMPI). Similarities and differences between the two tests were discussed as well as the theories where the said tests are based.

Projective and Personality Tests
Psychological tests are primarily used in measuring behavior.  These tests are usually administered in schools, companies, and mental institutions. The first psychological tests emerged during the nineteenth century and the beginning years of World War I (Gregory, 2003). Since then, a number of tests have followed, which began to measure not just intelligence but personality and behavior as well.

There are two main methods to measure personality. They can either be measured using projective or objective tests. Projective tests are basically unstructured, which relies on the interpretation of the test subjects over a certain stimuli. The first one to develop this type of test was Francis Galton through an experiment in 1897 (Ateel, 2010). He used a number of words and thought of as many words that could be associated with each. Objective tests are structured and are much preferred because of its high reliability and validity, which is ideal in the clinical setting (Lain, 2008).

One of the most popular projective personality tests is the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). It was authored by Henry Murray and was first used at Harvard University in the year 1935 (Net Industries, 2010). The test is basically a set of 20 cards with an inkblot on them. The test subject is asked to interpret the inkblot through story telling. Murray s basis for developing this test was the fact that one can reveal his or her personality when he or she interprets a certain ambiguous situation (Woltmann, 1948). This test has certain similarities with the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Test (MMPI), developed by Hathaway and McKinley. It is usually used for diagnosis of mental disorders. The test consists of ten scales, which correspond to different psychological conditions. One similarity between the two tests is that both are concerned with the expression of the subject s needs. The TAT focuses on aggression, perception, and the expression of the subject s needs through interpretation (Net Industries, 2010). The MMPI also focuses on the client s expression of needs. This is manifested in the scoring of the test. High scores indicate reluctance to admitting moral weaknesses and hesitation to disclose problems (Rich, n.d.).

The main difference between these two tests is that the MMPI makes use of scales to measure personality. It is widely used for identifying psychological disorders. One example of this is the study conducted by Kidner, Gatchel, and Mayer (2010) regarding the MMPI Disability Profile being associated with the degree of opioid use in work-related musculoskeletal disorders. Through the MMPI, they were able to find out that there is a relationship between the dosage of opioid and the production of the disability profile. The TAT, on the other hand, relies on the interpretation of the subject. This test, therefore, can be applied to subjects of different environments. A study was conducted by Gray (1998) on the TAT with Japanese subjects. The results showed that there are a number of cards wherein the themes for Japanese subjects resemble that of American subjects. This is because the TAT does not use language as a primary tool when it is administered to subjects, unlike objective tests.

In conclusion, using projective measures alone may not fully generate a total evaluation of the subject s personality, nor can objective measures. Although there are certain similarities among the two types of tests, there are a lot of differences as well such as the method of administration, scoring, and interpretation. Projective measures, such as the TAT, are more effective in surfacing personality traits though the subject s interpretation of ambiguous stimuli. Objective measures also reveal the subject s inner self, but because it is scaled, it is much effective on diagnosis of psychological disorders.

After discovering that each individual possessed unique qualities, behavior or characteristic traits, mans quest for self-awareness begun and therefore giving birth to a concept which come to be referred to as personality test.  Notable historical figures then devoted there time in the study of the field. An example is Hippocrates, a Greek philosopher physician who lived in the 500 BC. Cited as the first contributor of personality tests, he theorized that, the unique personality is affected by the four body fluids or humors, namely, the phlegm, black bile, yellow bile and blood. As Janda (2001) claims, centuries later, Galen expounded on the theory relating the four humors to temperate sanguine, phlegmatic, choleric and melancholic. He concluded that an ideal personality is a result of balance between the four temperate of the body, (Hart  Sherma, 1992).
 
Over the years, the study and development of personality has been on rampant growth. Various tests seeking to address specified areas of life have been, and still are being developed. Certainly, personality testing has found its full use in the employment environment. Continuously, managers are using the test to assess and project the future performance of there subordinates. To screen a job applicant or determine whether an employee should be promoted, two major approaches namely objective andor projective are being used, (Hart,et al,1992).Objective personality tests, which are based on straight forward multiple questions requiring are yes or no answer should be the preferred method. These kinds of tests have a number of advantages ranging from cost efficiency to easier interpretation of the test and data. Interest inventory tests, are one of types of objective tests designed to evaluate an individual level of interest in a range of activities, (Hart, et al, 1992). A good example is the Occupation personality questionnaire, OPQ or OPQ32 which is widely used to determine the subject, work behavioral style. On other hand, due to the ambiguity nature of proactive tests, they should be least preferred in screening employees. The result derive from them is questionable since there structured in an unclear manner and can illicit a number of response. An example is the Rosarch test, which is used to measure the intellectual level of the subject and his or her control over impulse and emotional stimuli, (Janda, 2001).
     
There is nothing wrong with applying objective or any other personality tests in human resource management. However, there legality should be backed by the fact that they are applied according to the directions and specification of their developer. For example, testing a marketer using a math problem design for an accountant is discriminatory and therefore  should not only be considered as illegal but also unethical. Again there use should consider the situation of the subject. If this is compromised the employer runs the risk of coming into conflict with law provisions and acts such as the disabilities act. Finally it should be noted that, preferring a certain type of quality can be looked upon as not appreciating the uniqueness of each individual, (Janda, 2001).

No doubt, the use of personality test is progressively increasing. Particularly in employment, managers believe that the tests minimize the chance of making wrong hiring decisions. However, Concerns of both employees and job applicant should trigger the need of improving the current existing tests andor reduce employer reliance on the tests. By doing so, it is not only the employees who are due to benefit but also, employers will benefit from advantages that come along with a diverse workforce.

The two terms prototype (as formulated by Eleanor Rosch) and stereotype (as formulated by Hilary Putnam) are two immensely vast areas in cognitive psychology.   These two semantic-based cognitive linguistic theories, although inter exchangeably used, are very different and distinct from one another.  A Prototype essentially is the archetype or the original model after which other similar collateral items are developed.  Out of a single prototype are born many members or stereotypes and one actually never comes across anything identical to their prototype.  (As cited in chapter 2, Semantics a course book, 2007)

Stereotyping, on the other hand is ones generalized concept of things that develop over the course of time and are resultant of ones environmental exposure and cultural interaction which has resulted of a particular list of typical characteristics that the item brings into mind once the word is uttered.  However, a prototype would always be the original unbiased entity whereas a stereotype is the result of overgeneralization of a particular group which is predominantly biased and can be negative in character.  Both the terms are related to one another and can be explained by the example of the word elephant.  When we talk about the prototype of elephant it would essentially be the elephant itself.  However, when stereotyped, elephant would be associated with attributes like large, grey, big ears, deaf, thick-skinned etc. (As cited in chapter 3, Semantics a course book, 2007)

There are numerous instances of our stereotypes going awry and leading to situations where one has undermined the essential capabilities and personality of certain people, things etc.  I would like to highlight this fact by an incident that changed my perception of the gypsies.  Having grown up in an environment that has constantly prejudiced and chided the Gypsy community for their vices, I, for one also unknowingly developed a set of preconceived generalized notionsattributes about the people without actually acknowledging the prototype of gypsy.  My sense of fear of mingling or developing any verbal contact with them was a result of my stereotypical and superficial knowledge of gypsies of being poor, uneducated and lazy with criminal tendencies.  I grew up associating gypsies with theft, pick pocketing, crime, prostitution, distrust and beggary.  These features become synonymous to the entire community, although there were gypsies who were trying to break out of the mould.  However, we must make way for exceptions to our negative stereotypes or mismemory and come up with a more realistic approach towards our wrong preconceived notions.  The mainstream media have played a crucial, negative role in perpetuating the stereotypes of the gypsies which have resulted in fear, hatred and ethnic racism against them.

However, it has become exceedingly difficult to think of prototypes, as we end up associating it with various features that we deem appropriate and end up with stereotypes, which may either be negative or positive, good or bad but not the original thing.  We start generalizing and forming conceptions (or misconceptions) once a prototype is formed and subsequently forget the original idea.

However, in order to avoid negative stereotypes, we must not indulge in over-generalization and polarized thinking.  One must try to achieve a balance i.e. explore the positive and negative aspects for a holistic view.  This will reduce stereotyping and we will be much closer to a more realistic view.  However, in our daily activities, stereotypes making cognition a simpler process, as the information is easier to access and we can respond much faster as attributes to stereotypes are deeply manifested within our minds, unlike a prototype.  It is important to achieve this balance in sensitive issues where we may unknowingly categorize a whole group as negative hence we must try to reduce negativity in order to come closer to the prototype.  Furthermore, the role of the media is also instrumental in creating false stereotypes and is pulling us away from the reality (prototype) to something that is self-created and biased (stereotypical).  Certain measures for containing media slander against a particular racecommunitygroup should be advocated, as sensationalism has a higher impact on minds. It therefore becomes pertinent for us to gain more meaningful knowledge of aspects that have biased our judgments and come closer to the prototype. (As cited in Stereotype Accuracy Toward Appreciating Group Differences, 1995)

According to medical-dictionary.com, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders is a categorical system of classification of mental disorders, published by the American Psychiatric Association that explains objective criteria to be used in diagnosing patients. Further, the website explains that each classification contains a code which provides a reference to World Health Organization (WHO) International Classification of Diseases which offers significant criteria as vital and associated features of the disorder, age at onset, course, impairment, complications, predisposing factors, prevalence, sex ratio, familiar patterns, and differential diagnoses.

MENTAL DISORDER DEFINED
Center for Psychiatric Rehabilitation (CPR) defines mental illness or mental disorder as a broad range of mental and emotional conditions. However, it does not cover the broad term mental impairment as it is different from other illness such as mental retardation, organic brain damage, and learning disabilities. According to CPR, the word psychiatric disability is used when mental illness distorts the usual activities a person does everyday such as learning, working and communication among others.

MAJOR DISORDERS
The most common examples of mental disorders are anxiety disorders, mood disorders, and Somatoform Disorders. Central for Psychiatric Rehabilitation explains each disorder and the causes that contribute to having one. 

Anxiety Disorders
Anxiety disorders are the most common group of mental disorders illustrating intense fear or anxiety associated with particular objects and situations. People with Anxiety disorder usually avoid exposure to the factors that triggers anxiety.

In an article written by Paul Maclver, Overcome Your Anxiety, he discusses the components of Anxiety disorder such as cognitive, emotional and behavioral. He also includes somatic components. According to him, cognitive components refer to the fear of uncertain danger. Emotional, on the other hand, causes a sense of panic, nausea and chills. Lastly, behavioral components would lead to both voluntary and involuntary behaviors, and sufferer could intentionally avoid the sources of anxiety, as what Maclver explained. Morever, about.com explained that although some researches suspect that anxiety disorder, still, the complete cause is still unclear. Environmental and cultural factors are still thought to be the major factors that contribute to the development of this disorder.

Several kinds of Anxiety disorder are Panic Disorder, Phobias, Obsessive-Compulsive disorder, and Post-Traumatic stress orders (PTDS).

CPR discusses Panic Disorder as the abrupt onset of paralyzing terror to impending doom. In addition, National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) website says that this disorder is characterized by unexpected and frequent episodes of intense fear accompanied by physical symptoms that may include chest pain, heart palpitations, and shortness of breath, dizziness, or abdominal pain which resembles a heart attack. People with panic disorder may feel sweaty, weak, faint or dizzy. One may also have nausea, chest pain, a sense of unreality, or fear of impending fate or loss of control.

Phobia, on the other hand, is an illogical and constant fear of certain objects, activities or people (socialanxietydisorder.about.com). CPR distinguishes the different kinds of phobias such as fear of particular objects (Simple Phobias), events that expose a person to the possible judgment of others (Social Phobias), andor situations where escape might be difficult (agoraphobia).

The next kind of Anxiety disorder is Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder which shows distressing thoughts or obsession on certain thing that would cause a person to perform actions that are unintentional and could cause harm to others. It is an illness that drives people to have unwanted thoughts and to repeat certain behaviors (Familydoctor.org). People with OCD are aware that their obsessions and behaviors are senseless but they cannot stop them.

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is the last kind of disorder that falls under Anxiety.
As the name connotes, the disorder happens after experiencing a traumatic or painful situation that was not able to surpass by a person. The factors which attribute to PTSD could be the result from exposure to terrifying, life-threatening trauma such as an act of violence, war, or natural disaster.

Mood Disorders
According to wrongdiagnosis.com, mood disorders or affectivedepressive disorder is characterized by a disturbance of mood. The disturbance could either be mild or sever, and may include depression, mania or hypomania or any combination of these.

According to Patrick Marinos Biological Rhythms as a Basis for Mood Disorders of Rochester Institute of Technology, certain factors influence the biological rhythms of our body. One of these factors is circadian clock which is responsible for controlling sleep pattern. However, depressed people experienced various types of sleep disorders. Henceforth, lack of sleep per night comes before the beginning of depression. Meanwhile, there is also what he calls as Seasonal Affect Disorder. Based on this article, patients with this kind of disorder experienced highly response to the total amount of light available in the environment. Cognitive symptoms include pessimistic views of the self and of the future ( HYPERLINK httpwww.uwmc.uwc.edupsychology309_unit_8.htm httpwww.uwmc.uwc.edupsychology309_unit_8.htm) which further leads to selective perception, and a self-fulfilling prophecy effect. Based on Anxiety and Depression Center website, behavioral symptoms include withdrawal, avoidance of other people, and not doing the usual activities in the past. Emotional aspects also contribute to the development of this disorder. Some events like death of loved ones may lead to a loss of identity or self-esteem.

The two major categories of mood disorders are bipolar and depressive disorders. Some signs of mood disorders include personality changed, depression, agitation, aggression, and anxiety.

Major Depression is an extreme or prolonged episodes of sadness in which a person loses interest or pleasure in previously enjoyed activities (CPR). Pyschology Information Online website added that this disorder can occur once, as a result of a significant psychological trauma, and if treated properly, will never occur again within ones lifetime. 

The second type is bipolar disorder. It is alternating episodes of mania (high) and depressions (lows). Hence, the other term manic-depressive illness. Common symptoms of bipolar disorder include mood swings like feeling on top of the world, inappropriate elevated
mood, distractibility, irritability, rebelliousness, and grandiosity.

The third type is Dysthymia which is the continuous low-grade symptoms of major depressions and anxiety. A sufferer usually feels restless, thus, losing the interest in life and feelings of fatigue. Common signs consist of persistent depressed mood, chronic prolonged depression, and lack enthusiasm for life.

Seasonal Affective disorder (SAD) is the last illness included in mood disorders. It is a form of major depression that happens in the fall or winter season, and maybe related to shortened periods of daylight. Based on Wrongdiagnosis (WD), it is a mental illness that follows climate changes. Sufferers experience intense depression during the long, dark, cold days of winter and resolution in spring. SAD is believed to be associated with the levels of melatonin which promotes sleep.

Somatoform Disorder
The usual characteristic of somatoform illness is the appearance of physical symptoms or complaints of such without any organic basic (Purgatory.com). Based on an article Dissociation and Disorders in a website, Dr. Bessel van der Kolk explains that traumatic memories are stored at the implicit memory level which changes a persons biological stress response to those memories (Van der Kolk, 1987). In the same article, emotional response could cause the patient to keep himself from feeling the pain while defending himherself. Meanwhile, behavioral enactments consist of compulsive verbalizations, recurrent expressions of the traumatic experience and artistic production, to name few. Based on the discussion of Somatoform and Dissociative Disorders in a website, when anxiety is transmuted into a cognitive symptom like loss of memory, then it is already considered as dissociative disorder.
Four major somatoform disorders exist (1) Conversion disorder also known as hysteria (2) hypochondriasis (3) somatization disorder (4) somatoform pain disorder.

Conversion disorder is the primary symptom often lacking or changing in physical functioning. This may include serious ailments such as blindness, amnesia and paralysis which the person could use as a defense mechanism to escape from a stressful situation.

Hypochondriasis differs from conversion disorder in a way that it has no real illness, but is just overly obsessed with normal bodily functions. Symptoms may include afflicted small irregularities in bodily functions, real or imagined, and then express concerns over their general health (Purgatory.com).

Wrongdiagnosis.com explains somatization disorder as multiple somatic complaints.  Patients with this disorder usually undergo repeated medical examinations and diagnostics testing that can be dangerous. Factors like genes and environment contribute to the development of somatization disorder. Sufferers usually complain physical pain shown in a dramatic, vague, or exaggerated way. As how the website elaborates, patients are usually anxious and depressed because of physical complaints such as psychosexual problem (sexual indifference).

Alcoholics Anonymous (AA), worldwide association dedicated to the remedy of
alcoholics founded 1935 by two alcoholics, one a New York broker, the other an Ohio physician. They evolved a 12-step program that has made contending with alcoholism likely for countless people. It encompasses psychological values that have long been utilized in the reorganization of personality. The association purposes through localized assemblies that have no constitutions, agents, or dues. Anyone with a consuming difficulty may become a member. There are presently over 99,000 localized assemblies in the United States worldwide members are roughly 2 million.  (Emrick, 2005)

Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) was founded in 1935 by a stockbroker entitled Bill, and a surgeon Dr. Bob who were both impossible alcoholics. The two had primarily both belonged to the Oxford Group, a nonalcoholic fellowship going by an Episcopal clergyman, Dr. Samuel Shoemaker. Dr. Shoemaker and a vintage ally Ebby simultaneously assisted Bill to get sober. Bill was furthermore assisted by employed with other alcoholics. Dr. Bob although did not have the identical primary achievement, but when he eventually contacted Bill, he notified him what he had wise from Dr. Silkworth that alcoholism was a malady of brain, strong sentiments and body (Alcoholics Anonymous). Dr. Bob answered well to these ides presented by Bill he shortly got sober, and not ever drank again. (Emrick, 2005)

The two men started work with other alcoholics at the City Hospital in Akron, Ohio, and one persevering became sober right away. Together these men made up the first assembly of A.A., and soon then assemblies formed in some distinct locations.

Early in 1939, the Fellowship released its rudimentary textbook, Alcoholics Anonymous. The text, in writing by Bill, clarified A.A.s beliefs and procedures, the centre of which was the now well-known Twelve Steps of recovery. The publication was furthermore strengthened by case past notes of some 30 retrieved members. From this issue, A.A.s development was fast (Alcoholics Anonymous).

The heart of Alcoholics Anonymous is in The Twelve Steps, which is a program of individual recovery. New constituents do not have to accept or pursue them as an entire until they are prepared and willing. It takes time for a one-by-one to arrive to periods with their difficulty, and that by going to meetings and hearing to A.A. constituents they too may start to heal. The one prerequisite for new constituents is that they should halt drinking. Only then, cans a new life, an alcohol-free life can begin. The significance of anonymity is furthermore worried as part of the Fellowship. An individuals persona is not revealed to outsiders. (Emrick, 2005)

The Preamble of Alcoholics Anonymous
Alcoholics Anonymous is a fellowship of men and women who share their know-how, power and wish with each other that they may explain their widespread difficulty and help other ones to retrieve from alcoholism. The only obligation for members is a yearn to halt drinking. There are no amounts be obliged or charges for AA membership we are self-supporting through our own contributions. AA is not akin with any sect, denomination, government, association, or institution does not desire to enlist in any argument, neither endorses neither resists any causes. (Horn Wanberg and Foster, 2002)

Our prime reason is to stay sober and help other alcoholics to accomplish sobriety (AA Forum). There are no amounts be obliged or charge for constituents of Alcoholics Anonymous. A head covering is passed at meetings for voluntary assistance utilized to counteract the cost of rental for gathering locations, coffee, etc. Income is increased from the sale of publications and literature. An one-by-one is permitted to, but not anticipated to contribute. However, assistance is not acknowledged from non-members because the assembly strives to be completely self-supporting. (Horn Wanberg and Foster, 2002)

In 1946, in the Fellowships worldwide periodical, the A.A. Grapevine, these values were decreased to composing by the founders and early constituents as the

Twelve Traditions of Alcoholics Anonymous. They were acknowledged and endorsed by the members as a entire at the International Convention of A.A., at Cleveland, Ohio, in 1950 (Alcoholics Anonymous). These guidelines were conceived in alignment to double-check the achievement of the group. They can help particularly because of the groups casual structure. (Gorski, 2003)

Recovery is split up into three stagesphysical, emotional, and spiritual. Physical recovery is the first step and the one in which Twelve Steppers are most hardworking in the AA outreach system. A call arrives for help from somebody who is still sobering up. A employee at Central Service will converse with him on the phone for a while or communicate a constituent on call for Twelve Step work and make direct individual contact. (Montgomery Miller and Tonigan, 2005)

The Twelve Step employee generally gets a new constituent to a gathering inside 24 hours if possible. He understands that the yearn to drink is very powerful in the early phases or personal recovery and boosts the newcomer to proceed to as numerous meetings as possible. (Gorski, 2003)

Meetings are either openanyone who likes to arrive is welcome or shut to non-alcoholics. A new constituent generally has a sponsor, the individual in who he selects to confide early in his membership. (Gorski, 2003)

Alcoholics Anonymous groups out to do three things
1. A.A. constituents share their know-how with any individual searching help with a consuming problem they give person-to-person service or sponsorship to the alcohol-dependent approaching to A.A. from any source.

2. The A.A. program, set forward in our Twelve Steps, boasts the alcohol-dependent a way to evolve a persuading life without alcohol.

3. This program is considered at A.A. assembly meetings (AA Forum). There are some distinct kinds of meetings. There are 2 kinds of open meetings. One is open speaker meetings which are open to both alcoholics and nonalcoholic. In this kind of meetings the constituents of A.A. share their tales, their difficulties with alcoholic beverage, what conveyed them there, and how their life has changed since assisting A.A. The other kind of open gathering is consideration meetings. A constituent talks about succinctly their knowledge with alcoholic beverage, and then directs a consideration on recovery or another alcoholic beverage associated difficulty conveyed up by somebody at the meeting. Closed consideration meetings are the identical as open consideration meetings, but are for alcoholics and potential A.A. members persons who may have consuming difficulties only. There are furthermore step meetings, which are commonly closed. At these meetings one of the Twelve Steps are discussed.
Alcoholics Anonymous has amplified its positions to encompass retaining meetings in both correctional, and remedy facilities. By doing this they are adept to continue help to persons who are in need, but incapable to proceed to meetings. Obviously persons in prison or jail will not depart to join frequently arranged meetings. Patients in remedy amenities are furthermore assisted by these meetings. They are in remedy and retrieving, but furthermore are obtaining therapy andor treatment along with being adept to join meetings. The Alcohol Safety Action Project (A.S.A.P.) and Driving While Intoxicated (D.W.I.) may have Alcoholics Anonymous constituents carrying out informational meetings as part of their programs. These are not normal A.A. assembly meetings, but informational meetings about A.A. 

Also, the composing of the Big Book took some months to accomplish. Drafts were dispatched back and forward to and from New York and Akron. After the New York constituents had reconsidered each section, Akron constituents were granted a possibility to give their input.  Dr. Bob had chosen a couple of constituents to help in this reconsider process. Even before the tales were advised, section after section went through some revisions. The Mid-West assembly in Akron worried the religious facets and the New York assembly liked to hold it to the personal aspects.  As one AA constituent asserted, AA doesnt educate us how to handle our drinking it educates us to handle sobriety. Most of us knew before we came through the doorway of the first gathering that the way to handle our consuming was to quit. People notified us so. (Horn Wanberg and Foster, 2002)

Many AA constituents approach Twelve Step work with an open brain and are arranged to be flexible. Greater Power, for numerous, stands for AA itself. God may be an emblem for the secret of the cosmos other than a customary deity. All AA assemblies supply constituents with a defended natural environment in which they are treated as identical, despite of the span of their alcoholic beverage problem. They are set free from the worry that besets new connections in accepted humanity, that ones alcohol-dependent annals will be found out and one will be turned down because of it. (Montgomery Miller and Tonigan, 2005)

The film Ray depicts several disorders.  Ray Charles at five years of age watched his four-year-old brother drown in a washtub.  This was an extremely traumatic event for the child and I believe that he developed acute stress disorder that eventually led to posttraumatic stress disorder.  This disorder in itself would affect adult decisions and behaviors.  A behavior of ASD (Acute Stress Disorder, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder) is that of increased smoking and drug and alcohol use.  Other disorders Ray suffered from were Heroin addiction, and Borderline Personality Disorder. 

Diagnosis Criteria
The first step in establishing treatment for acute stress disorder is to receive a professional diagnosis.  From within the guidelines of the DSM- IV-TR, a psychiatrist will look at the following criteria in determination of the disorder.  Relevant data such as background, series of events, and proposed emotional status play a role in the process.  Medications and addressing of other mental and physical issues are factors considered.  These determinations based on chemical imbalances of the brain produced by psychological problems (Axelrod, 2007). 

Symptomology
Mulhauser (2010) advises to reach a diagnosis of acute distress disorder the factors evaluated consist of

There is a dual primary indicative relation consisting of having witnessed a traumatic event in which death or severe injury occurred and of having an overwhelming response of horrification leading to a state of helplessness.  It was evident to me through the film that Ray was horrified in the realization that he was helpless to save his brother.  His addiction to Heroin, and alcohol was like self-treatment for his Borderline Personality Disorder. 

He may even have had feelings of guilt haunting him throughout his life.  I believe this would have a big effect on his emotional affect.

Emotional
ICBS (2007) provides the emotional signs and symptoms of stress.  These symptoms
allude to an emotional disorder that could, depending on severity and time constitute a diagnosis of acute stress disorder apparent within a month of the event and short lived, or that of a posttraumatic  disorder which is chronic.  I think that Ray exhibited the following emotional signs irritation, anger and hostility, depression and withdrawal (which was evident in his blues music), restlessness and anxiousness, self-deprecating, nightmares, and weak reflexes of emotional responses. 

Behavioral
According to Aetna (2007) the most common behaviors associated with acute stress
Disorder and easy to recognize is the frequently exhibited increase of these behaviors if intervention does not occur nail biting, increased smoking, or use of alcohol and drugs, neglect of responsibility, poor job performance, and bad hygiene.  I see that Ray suffered from several of these behaviors at one time or another during the film.  These behaviors were indicative of a severe stress disorder, in addition to the mood swings, which stemmed from the Borderline Personality Disorder a result of a tumultuous childhood.   

Indicators
Primary indicators are those associated with life and death or serious injury response that is against the norm.  Acute stress disorder generalized as to occurring within 4 weeks of the event.  If the symptoms persist, the individuals assessment for PTSD (posttraumatic stress disorder) this indicates that the disorder may be deep rooted with a history of events, which may have stemmed from childhood.  I feel that Ray possessed all of the Symptomology of acute stress disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder, which led to his smoking and heroin use, with an increase of these symptoms and behaviors over time as advised within the prognosis of the DSM IV TR. 

Ray knew that his addiction was overtaking his life, and his frustrations in dealing with the addiction as it threatened to destroy his dream of music, was pushing him over the edge mentally.  It seemed to me that Ray was self absorbed, and incapable of loving anyone, even himself.  The choices he made for himself, and the way he treated those who professed love for him depicted emotional detachment.

The effect of the Disorder on those around Ray
Those who were around Ray were privy to his many mood swings resulting from his drug usage, and Borderline Personality Disorder.  They lived with pain and heartache in watching him endure his addiction on top of everything else he had been through and was going through.  The nine women who had children by Ray, with no commitment on his part to them, save the one he was married to for 22 years, which ultimately ended in divorce. 

I understand that drug addiction and alcoholism take their toll on loved ones and friends of those afflicted.  It does not matter what race, rich, or poor a person is.  The impact is the same.  Ray was a responsible man, and did have a relationship with all twelve of his children.  He also gave them one million dollars each, he was responsible for his children and did take care of them (Jet, 2004).

Those around him needed to understand that a person who is under the influence of drugs is not seeing things as they are.  They continuously dwell in the past, reliving, and reinventing it.  They do not have a firm hold on current time.  Those closest to Ray blamed his drug addiction on others who assisted him in getting, and administering the drugs to him.  A quote I respect is (about his addiction to heroin) I did it to myself. It was not societyit was not a pusher it was not being blind or being black or being poor. It was all my doing.  Ray Charles (Joi, 2008).

The support provided to Ray from those around him who were concerned for his well-being was the direct approach to his problem, and support in getting him to understand what drugs were doing to his life and to his dream of music.  In my opinion, I agree with Ray.  No one can make us do anything that we do not want to.  We must take responsibility for our actions and avoid playing the blame game.

Identify Dominant Treatment Modalities
Modalities in place in attribution of treatment of ASD are psychotherapy and pharmacology, prescribed separately, or a combination of both may apply. It all depends on the individual diagnosis and response. There have not been many studies on the effects of pharmacological treatment on patients, but from those conducted it is known that the administration of serotonin reuptake inhibitors prove invaluable in providing quality of life to those who need treatment (Seedat, 2006). 

Ponniah and Hollon (2009) speaks on Cognitive Behavior Therapy (CBT) and eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) as efficacious and specific for PTSD it has made monumental progress in going forward, in addition to stress inoculation training, hypnotherapy, interpersonal psychotherapy, and psychodynamic therapy introduced as having great possibilities in treatment of PTSD (Ponniah  Hollon).

The movie displayed the arrests of Ray for drug use and possession.  When someone who cared what he was doing to himself, and what drugs were doing to his dream of music, expressed this to him, he listened and realized that he was out of control.  It took a third arrest for him to finally take action and seek help. 

Ray went into rehab at a sanitarium and kicked his addiction to Heroin in ninety-six hours.  During the 50s and 60s alcoholism and drug addiction, were new additives in the scope of treatment, and were treated the same as schizophrenia, or any other mental disorder (that is why today alcoholism and drug addiction are so closely tied to mental health programs). New psychotropic drugs of Thorazine and tranquilizers were developed and proved effective.  This led to decreased need of electric shock treatments, restraints, and seclusion rooms (NYSED, 2010). 

Todays treatment in relevance to the DSM IV TR for psychological disorders is indicative of pharmacological, and counseling combined in respect of individual need and capacity. 

Perspectives Conveyed
The film criticized for focusing on dramatic episodes while other parts of the film provided vague connotations, was unbalanced in its representation.  It left many unanswered questions in relevance to actual clarity in parts of Rays life such as the movie depicted he had only two children, when he actually had twelve. 

They attempted to cover up less desirable incidents of Rays life to describe him as this icon of soul music history, which was disabled and persevered against all odds, because he could do no wrong.  I saw through the faade to the realization this man for all his talent and genius was still, simply a man with faults and imperfections the same as the rest of us.

Mental Illness Attitude
The film captured the essence of mental disorders prevalent to Ray in light of the extreme poverty or socio-economic standing, the witnessing of the death of his brother, then going blind soon thereafter.  The loss of his parents was very dramatic as it left him alone at such a young and vulnerable age.  The lack of the father in the household was another transition he had to make, even though he never really knew his father.  Each of these factors set a foundation of mental disorder to develop, in addition to his recognition as a star and grueling schedule that left little time for self.  The movie provides a positive message in relaying that through all of the hardships Ray faced he was able to persevere and that his drug usage was enhancing his music.  On a negative note, it also depicts the price he had to pay.

The film did not really point out the mental illness in itself, but stayed more on the lines of drug and alcohol addiction and its effects.  Consequentially Rays demeanor, mood swings, and sexual inappropriateness led to the belief that he was not operating on a level of awareness in respect to making good decisions for his life. 

In Conclusion
Ray was a great adaptation of the development of mental illness and its effect on lives without proper treatment.  It also depicted the extreme pressures endured by celebrity status, and in the wake of all this, Ray Charles already had a full plate of disorders before he became famous.  Through it all, he lived his life the way he saw fit, without being encumbered by his shortcomings, or acknowledging that he exhibited behaviors thought of as inappropriate in societys eyes.   

This is a paper on cognitive psychology. The first part of the paper is a definition of cognition. Provided on this section is background information on cognitive psychology. The second part of the paper is an explanation on the interdisciplinary perspective as it relates to cognitive psychology. The section reveals the interdisciplinary nature of cognitive psychology. The third past is a description on the emergence of cognitive psychology as a discipline. The last section provides an assessment of the effects of the decline of behaviorism on the discipline of cognitive psychology.

The term cognition originates from the Latin term cognoscere whose meaning is to apprehend. Chambers English Dictionary defines this term as to be conscious (Garnham and Oakhill, 1994). From the most basic level, this term refers to intellect. Cognition is the scientific terminology that refers to the process of thoughts. This term is concerned with the mental processes. It is used in a variety of disciplines including psychology and cognitive science. Cognitive science is the study of information presentation and transformation in the brain. It refers to information processing perspective of humans psychological processes (Ellis, 1993).

Cognitive psychology is a field in psychology that is concerned with psychological processes. The process in question includes visual, reminiscence, thoughts, emotions, problem-solving as well as language. The school of thought that originates from this field is referred to as cognitivism. Cognitivism is concerned with the ways through which human beings process information. Cognitive psychology is a part of cognitive science. It is a branch of psychology that has relationship with other fields like neuroscience, linguistics and philosophy. Regardless the fact the cognitive psychology derives from past psychological approaches, it is basically differs from them in two ways. The first one is that cognitive psychology utilizes scientific methods. This field of psychology refuses introspection as a suitable method of analysis. This makes it different from fields like Freudian psychology. The second way that cognitive psychology differs is that it accepts the existence of innate mental states. This makes it different from behaviorist psychology (Berkeley, 1997).           
 
Cognitive psychology is an interdisciplinary field. This is because it crosses the conventional Bounderies between academic fields as well as schools of thoughts. Cognitive psychology is a field that has obtained its methods and processes from conventional schools of thoughts like cognitivism and behaviorism. Cognitive psychology was broke off from psychology. It also derives from traditional theories like computational theory of mind. Since the development of Cognitive psychology as a discipline, cognitive theories have become very common in other psychological disciplines like social psychology, abnormal psychology, personality psychology as well as developmental psychology. Cognitive psychology has been linked to the field of psychology that used to be referred as experimental psychology. All the aspects discussed reveal the interdisciplinary nature of cognitive psychology (Garnham and Oakhill, 1994). 

The emergence of cognitive psychology is believed to have taken place between 1950 and 1970. The major motivating factor to the development of modern cognitive psychology was the Second World War. This is due to the emphasis ob studies on human performance and attention. It was necessary to research on the functioning of the human mind in order to gather information on performance during the war. The other factor that contributed was the development of computer technology mostly that involved in AI. The last factor that might have an impact on the development of cognitive psychology is the renewed interest linguistics.   

The word cognitive psychology was coined by Ulric Neisser in 1967 (Berkeley, 1997). This means that cognitive psychology is a recent discipline in psychology. Cognitive psychology developed as a different field of study towards the end of the 1950s and the beginning of 1960s. This makes it one of the most recent areas of research in psychology. Cognitive psychology developed as a distinct field of study following the cognitive revolution. Up to the 1950s, behaviorism has been the well known theory in psychology. Between the 1950s and 1970s, the focus in psychology began to move from behaviorism to things like attention reminiscence, and problem solving (Ellis, 1993). This is what is known as cognitive evolution. The revolution was started by the appraisal behaviorism and empiricism by Noam Chomsky. However, the origins of cognitive thinking like computational theory of the mind dates back to the 17th century, from the work of Descartes. This theory continued up to the 1940s and 1950s with the work of Alan Turing. Nevertheless, during that period it was not recognized as a distinct branch of psychology that could be studied as an academic discipline. The popularity of cognitive psychology was motivated by Donald Broadbent in his book Perception and Communication since then the field began to expand with a leading paradigm of information processing model. This model of cognition that was invented by Broadbent has been in use since that time in the study of cognitive psychology. This way of thinking can be associated with the development of computers. In the model, information processing in the mind is related to information processing on the computer (Garnham and Oakhill, 1994). Hypothesis in this area refers to information input, representation, processing and output. Related to language as the basic mental information representation system, this discipline has used tree and network psychological schemes. The discipline has singularly contributed to artificial intelligence this makes it general in the idea of semantic network. One of the pioneers of cognitive psychology, George Miller is famous for dedication in his profession to the establishment of WordNet. This is a semantic network for English as a language. This way of understanding psychological processes has permeated psychology in the last few years. It is currently the dominant method in the study of psychology (Berkeley, 1997).
            
The decline of behaviorism made the attention to be shifted to cognitive psychology. Behaviorism is a branch of psychology that is based on the study of behaviors. In psychology, this school of thought holds that behavior can be defined scientifically without a relation to innate psychological actions or theoretical constructs like the mind. This school of thoughts holds that all the processes are observable. There is thus no difference between observable processes like actions and processes like emotions and thoughts that cannot be seen. From the 19th century, this was the school of thought that was so popular in psychology.  This school of thought began to differ with others like mental psychology in considerable ways (Garnham and Oakhill, 1994).

Towards the end of the 20th century, behaviorism began to fade as a result of the start of cognitive psychology. Despite the fact that these two theories differ considerably hypothetically, they have complemented each other practically in therapeutic procedures. One of the procedures where they have complemented each other is cognitive-behavioral therapy. This is a famous procedure that utilizes both cognitive and behaviorist processes like systematic desensitization and contingency management (Ellis, 1993). This is a therapeutic treatment for such conditions like phobias and addiction. Nevertheless, these two fields of psychology are very different, while behaviorism is concerned with the observable characteristics, cognitive psychology deals with the innate mental states. With the increase in understanding of the mental processes, behaviorism could not hold grounds. Psychologists got more interested in cognitive psychology with the demise of behaviorism. The other effect was that there was a fresh need to research on cognitive psychology and find out how it could be developed to incorporate the aspects of behaviorism that were still applicable in psychology (Berkeley, 1997).