Psychology

My nephew, now 7 years-old, is handsome. In fact, if I were to be asked, I would say that he stands out as the most handsome toddler from among his male-siblings and cousins. Perhaps, because he is handsome, his childhood was peppered with attention and favors from his family. But when he turned 4, and the time for him to attend primary schooling started, things turned out quite differently. It would be learned that he had strains of mental retardation. He was not really within the borders of what we may call mentally retarded or autistic. But his evident difficulty in grasping even the most basic of skills and reasoning proved to be sure catalyst for stigma, both for him and his mother, who by the way became a widow before she turned 28.

Scope of the Paper
What I intend to do in this paper is to capitalize on my experiences to build up concise analysis of the impacts of stigma, specifically that which pertains to the sufferings which my nephew and his mother experienced on account of his mental retardation. As such, this paper is not a full-dress thesis on the impact of stigma to little children and parents. Instead, what I intend to do is to explicate and  most importantly  validate the key concepts which I shall be gathering from research and personal understanding of stigma and prejudice.

Stigma and the Suffering It Breeds
Stigma can be defined and described in many ways. But what is enduring in all its characterizations is that stigma has something to do with disgrace or reproach in ones reputation (The American Heritage, 2010). This stems from the fact that the prejudiced connotations rendered to persons with disabilities do engender the development of a whole range of prejudice, intolerance and preconception, which in turn merely contribute to the marginalization of those deemed fit or belonging to the said label (Mason, 2001, p. 18). As such therefore, stigma is essentially related with prejudice and discrimination. Hardcastle and Hardcastle (2003) moreover note that people with mental problems are more vulnerable to experiencing morbidity in the manner by which they are being treated (p.3).

My little nephews mental retardation did not fully manifest until he attended pre-K schooling. While there were already serious concerns raised in view of his delayed speech and his abnormally high level of preponderance to lonesomeness, the way by which he was treated as a little toddler was comparably the same as with his other siblings and cousins. However, as soon as my nephews pre-K teachers recommended formal tests to verify his gradually manifesting mental retardation, attitudes towards him began to slowly change. I have known of adults who have deliberately referred to him as that little retard, inasmuch I once saw many of his playmates calling him by derogatory labels. I was therefore a witness to the unfortunate radical change of treatment towards my nephew  i.e., from being the favored handsome little toddler to that little retard sitting quietly in one corner of the room.

It would be difficult to present the many factors which can help explain why people stigmatize differently-able people. But Heatherton, et. al., contend that, because group living is highly adaptive for human survival and gene transmission, people will stigmatize those individuals whose characteristics and actions are seen as threatening or hindering the effective functioning of groups (2000, p. 34.). And I find this observation very true in the case of my nephew. In many incidences, I have seen well-meaning people asking the mother about the future of the little boy. Many relatives have, in fact, pointed out the grim prospects of the boys future life i.e., questions like What kind of work would he have, or Can he handle serious relationships, or Would he make a good husband are commonly asked.

But the severe impact stigma is surely not limited to the outward ugly perception of the world against certain individuals manifesting strains of mental or physical challenges. According to the Encyclopedia of Mental Disorders, the stigmatization of the patient with mental illness (can) extend to family members insofar as coping with stress, created by other peoples reaction, can become problematic at times (2010, n.p.). I can resonate with my experience to validate this observation pretty well. The stress which stigmas generate for the boys mother did prove to be a little too bearing at times. It is not uncommon for her to literally drag my nephew away from his playmates who have developed a habit of ridiculing him. As indeed, it would appear to me that she has developed an unconscious habit of defending her sons reputation, in manner being behaviorally rough, when she figures in a heated conversation about her son.

Conclusion and Realizations
I wish to end this paper with an affirmation that societal stigmas against mentally challenged individuals do present serious problems for them and their families. In my experience, I have seen the seeming systematic marginalization of my nephew and the equally burdensome stress which his condition impinges upon his mother. Herein, I realized that my experiences have validated the concepts and theories which I have gained from my short research. In other words, I do in fact agree for most part with the concepts that were quoted in the study, insofar as my experiences with my nephews mental retardation have validated them. Furthermore, I have come to realize the ugly ramifications of stigmas, both for those discriminated against, as well as for their immediate families and wish that, inasmuch as I am aware of the sufferings of my nephew and his mother, I may not add more insults to the already injurious wounds severely suffered by those who have been prejudiced by the society on account of the unfortunate conditions.

Neural plasticity, also referred to as brain plasticity, is the phenomenon where neurons in the brain change their structure, functionality and organization as a response to new experiences (Huttenlocher, 2002). When the brain undergoes new experiences as triggered by external factors, nerve connections can either strengthen or weaken. Additionally, the external experience may trigger the generation of new neurons in the brain. Neural plasticity has become one of the most vital areas of neuroscience since the strengthening, weakening or addition of neurons and neural connections could be the key to the treatment of brain damage caused by accidents, poisoning or substance abuse (Huttenlocher, 2002).

Neural plasticity is what makes it sometimes possible for persons who have suffered brain damage to heal naturally healthy neurons and nerve connections take over the roles played by the damaged ones thus permitting the brain to have some level of cognitive functionality while engaging on the healing process (Liden, 2010). A variety of mechanisms exists through which neural plasticity can take place. The most common mechanism is axonal sprouting. The axon is a fibrous component of a neuron that serves to conduct sensory impulses throughout the body. When some neural connections have been severed, healthy axons develop new endings that serve to connect the pathways that have been incapacitated within the entire nervous system (Liden, 2010). Such an adaptive strategy enables the nervous system to improve its functionality in adverse conditions and systematically repair itself, gradually returning to full capacity. Neural plasticity is what makes brain damage particularly in young people reversible. Plasticity-based simulated exercises have in fact been demonstrated as capable of assisting increase cognitive spontaneity in people, particularly children, with learning difficulties (Huttenlocher, 2002). Learning difficulties of dyslexia can be alleviated through such exercises and so can cognitive decline of psychomotor functionality arising from old age when specific therapeutic procedures are developed to utilize brain plasticity to improve cognition, memory spontaneity, physiological motor control and other faculties of the human body (Huttenlocher, 2002).

When I came into contact with the concept of brain plasticity, I was reading journal material on the possible ways of curing various brain ailments like Alzheimers disease and Cerebral palsy. As said earlier, medical research is focusing on the viability of induced neural plasticity for application in medical purposes. In some cases of severe brain damage and illnesses, different sections of the brain have exhibited their ability to take over all the functional duties of the damaged sections. If such natural processes can be replicated through guided intervention, total functionality of the brain and nervous system can be restored in cases of serious brain disorders that are incurable through the application of current neurological technology and treatment (Huttenlocher, 2002).

Neural plasticity has demonstrated the brain and nervous systems unique and natural ability to reprogram itself when the need arises. It thus presents a viable and effective method of treating many psychological and mental disorders affecting society today. Besides natural ailments and brain damage resulting from accidents, guided neural plasticity can be used to reverse acquired substance dependence and addictions (Huttenlocher, 2002). Millions of people are directly affected by disorders similar to addictions and many more are indirect victims. The current solutions to such disorders lack efficacy, a fact proved by high rates of relapse even in cases under treatment. Guided neural plasticity can be used as a more efficient solution instead of the application of medical interventions centered on drug therapy which in itself becomes an addiction of sorts. Resources should therefore be allocated to extensive research on neural plasticity.

The study being reviewed was conducted by Maire Ford and Nancy Collins.  The study was a study using the independent variable of an ambiguous rejection of the study subject, and depending on the level of self-esteem, the expected reaction would differ, as would the level of cortisol in the subject due to the stress of the rejection.  The study not only proved its own hypothesis but it also gave credibility to those similar studies previously conducted on similar topics.  The newest aspect was the inclusion of the level of cortisol in the saliva of the subject, which is significant, but must be studied more before it can be conclusively included in the hypothesis.

Provide the reference using APA style.
Ford, M.,  Collins, N. (2010). Self-esteem moderates neuroendocrine and psychological responses to interpersonal rejection. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(3), 405. doi10.1037a0017345

What is (are) the research hypothesis(es) State hypotheses explicitly so that it is apparent what was measured.

The research of Ford and Collins, hypothesized that an ambiguous rejection given to the subject will influence the psychological and endocrine responses to an ambiguous interpersonal rejection with the control being the level of self esteem (2010).  

Does (do) the hypothesis(es) follow logically from the arguments presented in the introduction Provide a short analysis of the arguments and the previous research cited in the introduction that clarifies and justifies the researchers hypothesis.

The research went further predicting that the subject with lower self-esteem (LSE) will perceive the rejection in more dangerous terms and the endocrine systems will react releasing more cortisol into the system which can lead to a more socially defensive response of the subject.  This follows with previous studies in which the subject with LSE will experience more self-doubt and expectations of rejection and thus when these events occur the result is more painful, because of the expectation is proven correct. The previous research focused more on the psychological factors, but with this current research the use of both the psychological and endocrinal system changes are explored to gain a better understanding as to how the LSE functions in contrast to the subject with high self-esteem (HSE).

What are the independent and dependent variables Be sure that you state the operational definitions of these variables.

The independent variable is the ambiguous rejection because it never changed and was always presented as being subjectively construed due to the ambiguity of the rejection response.

The control was self esteem and was nominally ordered in that it is either high or low as the difference in self-esteem will allow the ambiguous rejection to be perceived differently.

The dependent variables would the psychological responses and the endocrine levels in the system. The psychological response variable would be measured with an interval operation from low rejection response to high rejection response.  The variable associated with endocrine levels would also be interval in that the levels of cortisol would vary in the subject and should correspond to the psychological levels of response as well.

Comment on the appropriateness of the operationalization of the variables and explain why you think these variables are or are not operationalized appropriately.

I believe that the operationalization of the variables is correct.  The dependent variable related to self-esteem is correct to be operationalized as nominal since it only measured whether the subjects self esteem is high or low.  There is not ranking or intervals.  It is similar to being male or female and therefore is best understood in as a nominal operation

The remaining dependent variables will have a range of differing responses and levels.  The psychological response will go from barely registering to fearing a physical or social threat that is dangerous.  The cortisol level will move from normal to extremely high depending on the responses to the perceived rejection. In this case, the fact that there is a range of options, the interval is the best way to rate and prepare the data for analysis.

Briefly describe the research methods used in the study. How were the variables examined Is this study experimental, correlational, or descriptive (It is also possible that a study can use more than one approach to answer research questions.)

The variables were examined in a correlational and descriptive way.  The description was more on the variable of self esteem, but that variable was then correlated as to the effect of socially ambiguous rejections and the level of cortisol in the system and the psychological responses to the rejection. The way in which this study found their data was in a two session program.  The first session was an interview and the researchers used the Rosenberg Esteem Scale as one of their tools to gather the basic data for the study.  The second session was a week later and the information gathered at this session was the level of cortisol at the time the subject arrived, and after the rejection.  The other data was collected through questionnaires and observations before, during and after the rejection.

Describe the major findings as reported in the results. Do the findings support the hypothesis(es) What conclusions are made by the researcher

The psychological responses showed significant between responses before rejection and after, showing that the rejection of the unknown possible dating partner did have an effect on the subject.  The level of partner degradation was increased negatively by those subjects that had been identified as LSE.  Again there was a negative increase in the levels of cortisol in those rejected subjects identified as LSE.  With this information the findings do support the hypothesis of the study.
The conclusion is that the hypothesis proves and that subjects with LSE were more likely to self-blame for the rejection believing that the rejection was based on their unworthiness rather than on any other option.  The fact that the rejection was ambiguous allowed for this type of realization, but that was what was expected with persons with LSE.

What future research can be suggested
The weak correlation between self-blame and negative social self-evaluations, the study stated that this could be important in understanding the precise cognitions that trigger a meaningful threat to social preservation.

Also there needs to be more studies on the effect of cortisol level in subjects based on relationship events.  This study only gave a basis on which to develop other studies that are more in-depth and focus more on the reasons why the levels change and what triggers the increase.

Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of this research If possible, describe at least one minor or major flaw of this research.

One weakness found was the scales for self-blame and negative self evaluations and the implications that need to be further explored.  Another factor was that self-blame was correlated with partner degradation but the self-evaluation was not, again leaving room for more study to gain better understandings as how the individual cognition works.

The strength of this study was that it backs up previous studies showing that the level of self-esteem reacts with the ambiguous rejection and therefore expected responses occur.

What contributions did this particular study make Why should we care about this research, as psychological scientists or as consumers or psychological research

This study gave more in-depth proof of the correlation of LSE and the response of social threats as dangerous to the social worth of an individual.  This type of research helps to better understand and work with risk regulations in relationships.

An increasing body of research shows that traditions and family stability are critically important in the development of a well-adjusted and productive young adult. In a time when stability is decreasing because of socio-economic factors this is a particularly important concept. Fortunately it is possible to achieve a sense of stability and belonging in more than one type of family structure. The degree to which there is a sense of belonging within the family is a strong predictor as to a sense of belonging within the larger society.

For thousands of years cultures have recognized the benefits of tradition. These benefits extend far beyond reminiscing about the past on a certain day of each year. The depth of traditions effect on our lives may be best seen when they are lacking. The negative consequences when tradition and stability are lacking are readily apparent. An inherent difficulty lies in determining exactly what has effects, how the effects manifest themselves and how deep the effects on human development are. None the less, some general conclusions can be reached

In this paper, the state of the modern family will briefly be discussed. Then, American family structures and traditions will be compared with others along with the dynamic forces that affect them all. The forces that prevent stability and their consequences will be examined. Through all of this the role of tradition in family life will be highlighted.

Families in the 21st century
The state of the modern family differs among cultures but is a dynamic process in all. In the United States family stability was critical in the early decades of the new nation. Affluence and free time were rare and survival was not a given. As a result families organized themselves into fairly rigid role structures. Multi-generational families living together were much more common in the 18th and 19th centuries than they are today, thereby providing a rich opportunity for traditions to be passed down.

As America industrialized and wealth became more widespread family structure gradually changed. A transition between a rural and an urban culture was developing rapidly. For the first time, the United States had a large middle class. In the 1950s the nuclear family became the gold standard for ensuring proper child development. These were essentially independent economic units in and of themselves. Even then, there were many exceptions to this type of family structure. Nonetheless, the rapidly expanding media culture helped make the nuclear family the ideal in the minds of most Americans.

In the decades since, similar cultural forces have, arguably, helped to dismantle family structure and tradition all together. Tradition within families still exists, but the true meaning of them is increasingly lost. In many cases tradition has become highly commercialized. The results are traditions that are observed in a more rote manner, divorced from true meaning. Meanwhile, divorce, poverty, drugs, violence and a number of other socio-cultural factors have made the two parent family much less common. Combined, these effects have decreased the overall levels of stability and connection within our culture.

Illegal drugs have been a menace to American family stability. They have relegated many to a life of poverty, or worse. Thousands of children have been put in foster care because of drug-addicted parents. Many children have one or more parents incarcerated for drug offences. Even in more affluent nuclear families, drugs, media and peer influences seem tailored to erode the traditions of family and replace them with self-centered traditions.

Some parts of the world farther away from these influences are still at risk of losing

tradition and family stability. In Africa and in rural parts of South America there are ancient
practices of several generations of families living together and purposefully being taught the traditions that will help them successfully negotiate the outside world. In recent years globalization has begun to alter those traditions. In Senegal, Guatemala and in rural India young people are leaving their families in hopes of finding a better job in the industrialized cities. In the process their way of life, and that of their children, changes dramatically.

Stability is a critical aspect of healthy child development. A great deal of research shows that a two parent household is more often than not healthier for children than other arrangements. Unfortunately, the tradition of involved fatherhood in America is diminishing. Jane and Chet Lancaster have assessed the importance of fathers from an anthropological perspective In the course of evolution, the keystone in the foundation of the human family was the capturing of male energy into the nurturance of the young (Blankenhorn, 1995).

So no matter what your financial status is, what your culture, your ethnicity, your educational level, no matter if you are two parents, one parent or a divorced parent, a family member parent, a step parent, an adopted parent, a foster parent, or have any other configuration at home, the greatest gift you can give your child is a secure attachment.                             (Nelson, 2008)

Divorces and single or no-parent families are at an all time high. In some cases grandmothers are raising several sets of grandchildren on their own. Divorce creates an environment of instability even when the father or step father is actively involved in the life of the child. After a 25 year study of the children of divorced parents Wallerstein and Lewis concluded that The father-child relationship in a divorced family is thus negotiated month-by-month, year after year formed by countless interactions until the son or daughter grows up (Wallerstein and Lewis, 2000). The same could be said of relationships between incarcerated children and their parents. The children are never left unscathed.

Lois Murphy developed the damage model (Fig. 1) in her studies of children from broken homes. The model, in a simple way, shows how children can progress from unstable, tradition-less homes into a difficult adulthood. It should be noted that the model is not necessarily a predictor as it is a descriptor of potential risks.

Arguably, there is a greater risk today than ever before that childrens lives will be described by the Damage Model. Families in the United States and around the world are undergoing transition. Ironically, as technology has interconnected the world families are becoming less connected. New ways of fostering stability and belonging will have to be found or the societal consequences will be dire.

The type of family structure can be an important element of well-being, but not as important as the overall sense of stability children feel. The variety of stable family types around the world provides hope that family breakdown here can be overcome. In cases where families are broken tradition can be an important tool for remaining care givers.

A Comparison of Traditions
Traditions have always been a means of connection for human beings. In some cultures they are simple touchstones, or reminders, of the importance of family communication and co-operation. For others, they are extremely important and revered rituals that have importance unto themselves. They also may serve as teaching moments for the older generation to pass on information to the young. Whatever the case, traditions provide a sense of continuity and connectedness that is fundamentally important for the well-being of all people.

Naming is an important tradition in many cultures. Beyond just paying respects to ancestors or relatives, naming says a lot about the family itself, the familys expectations for the youngster and the depth of a familys religious faith. This is why in some cultures there is much less variation in the types of names than we are used to in the Western world.

Traditions can have dual religious and cultural purposes. The bar mitzvah in the Jewish faith is one such example. It has ties to the religious faith but also serves as a milestone for a young person moving toward adulthood and a bridge between all who have experienced that rite before. Christian baptism is more strictly religion and faith-oriented, but also can serve the purpose of increasing feelings of connectedness and well-being.

Palestinian Christians celebrate Good Friday, Easter and other traditional Christian holidays. These are important family bonding events. There is no social safety net in Palestine.

Christians are an oppressed minority within a society that itself is oppressed by outside forces. These everyday realities make family all the more important. Tradition is used to strengthen these ties.

In predominantly Hindu countries the duty to the family is primary. This includes the celebration of traditions such as arranged marriage and private refinement rituals. Domestic life is regarded as the most important aspect of humanity. The dedication to family is such that Hindi women often expected to live their entire lives within the boundaries of the family and extended family compound. On its face, it offends our Western sense of individuality but the Hindu people have clearly recognized both the importance of family and the importance of tradition and stability within that family.

The African World Festival has become a tradition for many African-American families. The festival celebrates generational connections. It allows African-American families to understand their heritage better through storytelling and music. Festival observances can be particularly important for groups who have been enslaved or excluded from society in the past.

Many cultures celebrate birthdays yearly. The degree of importance attached to these celebrations varies. In some cultures birthday gift giving is critical to the giftees future prosperity and standing in the community. Some African cultures do not celebrate birthdays annually in favor of a single important ceremony to mark the beginning of adulthood or entry in to a tribe.

There are certain traditions such as marriage birthdays and graduations, which the vast majority of people celebrate in one way or another. There are other traditions that are particular to small groups or even individual families or persons. Kaiser et al. From The University of Illinois make an interesting analogy about the effect of traditions

Family rituals and traditions are special ways of doing things that we repeat over and over again. When you use a muscle in your body over and over again in a certain way, it makes the muscle stronger. Likewise, sharing repeated experiences in a certain way strengthens the family.

In recent years, many developmental psychologists and family counselors have recognized the tie between tradition and well-being. Families are increasingly being encouraged to develop their own traditions. With everyone involved in both the creation and the periodic recognition of the ritual, this process can strengthen family ties in a time when many forces are threatening to pull them apart.

A tradition as simple as eating dinner together as a family can have long-term positive effects on the entire family. Studies sponsored by the American Academy of Pediatrics have found that frequent sharing of meals increases stability and belonging, results in healthier eating, decreases depression and increases positive motivation (Kaiser et al., 2005).

Values are the ties that hold society together. In the absence of them the survival of humanity would be in doubt. For thousands of years, cultures have used traditions to teach and reinforce the values that are critical for our survival.

What do these traditions have in common The observances and practices can vary widely. All share common purposes however. They are all intended to increase the sense of belonging, security and responsibility. Values are communicated and reinforced that help us deal with an inherently insecure world.  The type of family structure can be important, but not as important as the overall sense of stability children feel. The variety of stable family types around the world provides hope that family breakdown here can be overcome. In cases where families are broken tradition can be an important tool for remaining care givers.

Perhaps the best way to evaluate the effect of tradition on human development is to assess what happens when it is lacking. The lack of tradition and security are associated with a number of social ills. Several of these will be discussed here.

When Tradition and Stability are lacking
Traditions serve as landmarks in the sea of life. They enhance stability, and vice-versa. These can be unique traditions established within a family or they can be ones shared with the community, country or world. In any case, they establish meaningful guideposts that increase the sense of belonging and self-esteem of children and adults alike.

Some traditions, in contrast, can be negative. These usually occur in homes where a sense of stability is lacking. For example, a youngster may grow up with a tradition of visiting a parent in prison. Feelings of misplaced self-blame and resentment may eventually result in that youngster being in jail himself. Negative traditions beget even more instability.

The statistics are grim. According to Bernstein As many as half of the male children whose parents have been incarcerated will wind up behind bars themselves (Bernstein, 2005). Thereby, a negative developmental cycle is perpetuated. The true victims are the children of those who are imprisoned. In addition to the lack of security the removal of a parent creates, many kids suffer life-long psychological consequences that often begin in a way similar to the following

What was Christine to think as she rode away in the police car on that day
when everything ended Only what children are already inclined to think when misfortune strikes the family - that she was to blame. (Bernstein, 2005).

The use of the phrase everything ended in this example is compelling. Looking at it from an analysts perspective, the child is likely to be thinking in general terms about the lack of security and the peril her father may face. Mixed within those thoughts one would also expect to see remembrances of holidays like Christmas, along with other special family traditions. These are the guideposts of life.

The presence of positive traditions is often indicative of a sense of belonging. A sense of belonging is often predictive of a well-adjusted and productive adulthood. These adults, in turn have greater odds of raising well-adjusted children. This is not a fail-safe equation by any means. Things can go wrong at any stage. The presence of strong traditions, however, can help accentuate the natural resiliency all human beings have.

The presence of stability and tradition in childhood are also typical of many well-adjusted successful adults. Even more noticeable is the lack of these characteristics in the youth of people who are not confident, well-adjusted adults. The record number of people in prison, problems associated with drugs, diminished expectations of behavior and the thousands of children in foster care are all illustrative of that point.

As of 2006 more than 500, 000 children in the United States resided in foster homes. About half of these children were in foster care for less than a year before being returned to their parents or to close relatives. For a similar percentage reunification with the parents is not a stated case goal. The Adoption and Foster Care Analysis and Reporting System (AFCARS) reported that 303,000 children entered foster care and 289.000 exited during FY 2006 (Child Welfare Information Gateway, 2009).

Foster care can be a revolving door for many children who exit and reenter multiple times. Even within the system children are often moved between a variety of different homes in a relatively short period of time. Needless to say a sense of stability and belonging can be hard to come by for these kids. Many overcome these difficulties to become well-adjusted and productive adults. Unfortunately, many do not.

Foster children who have not had the benefit of stable families or the guideposts of tradition face many obstacles. In findings similar to many other studies of its type, an RTI International study found that  In general, these young adults were faring more poorly than young adults nationally for nearly all indicators of well-being (2008). A child may go through the foster care system with several sets of caring and attentive parents. As well-meaning as those parents may be, there is still a fundamental lack of stability that will affect the child throughout his or her life.

The sheer numbers of children in foster care or in single parent and no-parent homes is indicative of the breakdown of tradition and families in the United States. There are social consequences that can be seen in the number of kids who feel alienated and who succumb to drugs, crime and a host of other risky behaviors.

Analysis and Conclusion
Tradition has served a valuable role in human development for thousands of years. In ancient times they were developed to cope with a seemingly chaotic world. They serve the same purpose today. The world is certainly no less chaotic. Traditions are still an effective way to communicate values, expectations and the tools of life to younger generations. In return, the younger generation receives an increased sense of belonging and security. In any form of teaching it is critical to make expectations clear cut. Traditions tend to do this in a way everyone can understand and appreciate.

In America, family traditions are part of our shared national heritage no matter what ethnic or religious group one belongs to. Tradition is becoming harder to hold on to, though. This is especially true of traditions that involve multiple generations of a family. The cultural emphasis on individuality has not only taken us away from our neighbors, but also our extended families. Economic and social factors have also torn families apart, taking away the traditions that can help promote stability. The effects of this lack of stability can be seen by examining the children in foster care or the children of prison inmates.

Traditions role has not been completely lost. Many families of various types have begun to create their own family traditions. As long as these traditions are infused with meaning for everyone involved, they can potentially have the positive benefits of the old traditions.

Optic ataxia and apraxia are common disorders which have some differences and share some similarities. This paper will seek to address the similarities and the differences that the two exhibit in terms of anatomy and their behavior or characteristics.
 
Optic ataxia manifests itself when one has impairment when it comes to visual control of the direction of arm reaching to a visual target.  The impairment in visual control is also accompanied by a defective orientation of the hand as well as the formation of grip. The disorder is also linked to the lesions which are normally present in the superior parietal lobule (SPL) which has effects on the coordination between the eye and the hand. The lesions in the parietal lobe are known to alter the accurate shaping of the hand in accordance to the configuration of the object (Clark, et al, 1994). At this point, it should be understood that the SPL is normally the main source of visual input to the frontal cortex and is normally key to the visual control of movement. Research has actually shown that optical ataxia come as a result of a breakdown between the directional eye and hand information within the global tuning fields of parietal neurons (Walsh, Rushworth, 1998). Basically, optic ataxia can be understood to be the lack of proprioceptive control of movement which is normally characterized by a disorder with the hand reaching movements.

Optic ataxia can also be understood as a neurological symptom which is generally associated with the dysfunction of both the parietal and the frontal lobe. For instance, parietal patients have some defects when it comes to conferring to the hand orientation. This is mainly due to the fact that the patients lack the oriented slot (Milner, Jakobson, Carey, 1991). Visual information processing models also show that optical ataxia is a deficit of the dorsal pathway which normally connects the pre-striate areas to the back side of the parietal lobe.

The disorder is also known to not only impair the visually guide arm reaching because it also affects the visual motor behaviors such as prehension. Also, optic ataxia has close association with the parietal cortex which normally controls the eye and hand movements. The parietal cortex is normally divided into two regions which are concerned with sensation, perception and the integration of the sensory input. The region that is much concerned with the integration of sensory input is of interest in the study about optic ataxia (Walsh, Rushworth, 1998). Optic ataxia is known to occur as a result of damage to the neo-cortex leading to the inability of one to conduct some meaningful movements.

Optic ataxia has a number of symptoms which are distinct from those of apraxia. First, there is the alteration of the kinematics of reach. The kinematics is normally altered in a manner that there is reduction in velocity and the deceleration phase takes sometime to complete. The performance of the patient is also severely affected since the vision of the both the hand and the target are obstructed. Optic ataxia has a subtype called the non-foveal ataxia (Clark, et al, 1994). Patients with the non foveal ataxia can successfully reach to objects which are focused on the foveal but they have the inability to reach to objects situated in the tangential field of vision.

Apraxia
On the other hand, there is apraxia which is normally a neurological syndrome. It reflects dysfunction of the motor system at the cortical level. It is characterized by the inability to execute some purposeful movements despite the fact that one may be willing to perform the movements (Tunik, Fray, Grafton, 2005). Apraxia differs from optic ataxia since it is normally caused by lesions which present themselves in the left hemisphere of the brain which is more language dominant.

Apraxia also differs from the optic ataxia since it is more dominant in children who are learning to acquire their mother tongue. Apraxia patients have the tendency of having a repetition in terms of speech sound repertoire meaning that such individuals will be having limited speech sounds (Leiguarda, 2000). Also, it has the characteristic that, individuals with the condition normally have some level of inconsistency in speech. Research has also shown that apraxia patients normally have problems while accessing vocabularies and they have a limitation in terms of the number of words that they can understand.

Apraxia is distinct from optic ataxia since it is normally a problem with the movement of body parts such as the jaws, limbs and the tongue while the later is normally a problem with grip configuration in accordance to the object that one may wish to hold (Rushworth, Ellison, Walsh, 2001).

Other characteristics that are not present in optic ataxia but are present in apraxia include difficulties especially when one is imitating a speech and some difficulties when saying longer words or phrases. Individuals with apraxia have difficulties in understanding and they always sound choppy or pay much emphasis on the wrong syllables or words (Milner, Jakobson, Carey, 1991). Moreover, apraxia has some other characteristics which are distinct from those of the optic ataxia. For instance, the condition often leads to delayed language development and confusion when recalling words or past instructions. Lack of motor coordination and the inability to read or spell are also features of this disorder (Rushworth, Ellison, Walsh, 2001). There is also the problem with hyper sensitivity and hyposensitivity which results to the failure to identify an object that may be in the mouth.

Apraxia and optic ataxia also differs in the types. For instance, there is the acquired apraxia which affects anyone regardless of their age. This type of apraxia is normally prevalent in adults and it damages the part of the brain which is concerned with speech. Then there is the developmental apraxia (Leiguarda, 2000). This is normally present in birth and is more prevalent in boys than in girls. Common characteristic with this form of disorder is that a child follows the typical path of developing speech but he or she does this slowly.

The two also differ in the fact that, the optic ataxia patients cannot do most of the things independently while for those with apraxia can go on with their day to day operations with minimal or no difficulties except for the fact that their language may not have fully developed. They also differ in the way that one can intervene incase one has a patient of either of the disorders. For instance, the use of sign language is normally a way of intervening especially when an individual has the speech apraxia (Tunik, Frey, Grafton, 2005). Though it can be frustrating, it is normally practical since it involves the use of an augmentative and alternative communication system.

Similarities
Both optic ataxia and apraxia show some similarities. In that, they are both acquiredhereditary and they can develop as a result of other external factors. For instance, sensory ataxia is caused by the loss of sensitivity to joint and the positioning of body parts. This arises when there is dysfunction in the dorsal columns of the spinal cord. Focal lesions in the central nervous system are known to be the major case of optical ataxia. In addition, lack of vitamin B12    is known to be the cause of both the cerebellum and the sensory ataxia. Optic ataxia is also known to be hereditary (Clark, et al, 1994). Hereditary disorders normally result to the degeneration of the cerebellum. Similarly, a child born by parent with this disorder has high probability that he or she will have the same disorder.

The two disorders are normally treated by use of therapies which has so far been found to be effective. For instance, they are treated through the use of physical therapy which is common to both. Also, occupational therapy andor speech therapy are normally effective in the treatment of apraxia. The two have the characteristic that they mainly originate from the dysfunction of the parietal lobule of the left hemisphere of the brain. They also have the common characteristic that they are concerned with limitation in terms of body movements (Milner, Jakobson, Carey, 1991). Only that, optic ataxia is localized to the eye-hand movement while the apraxia are more localized to the jaw and tongue movement which make language acquisition to be slower.

At this point, it is worth concluding that the two disorders differ in the manner they present themselves. Optic ataxia present itself by lack of coordination between the eye and hand movement which translates to lack of a grip which will assume the shape of the object that one may wish to hold. Apraxia manifests itself through the slow development of speech and inconsistency of the same. Finally, the common characteristics between the two are that they are both neurological disorders which originate from the parietal lobe. It has also been deduced that the two results to impairment in body movements (Tunik, Frey, Grafton, 2005). In addition, it is evident that optic ataxia dose not discriminate against age and sex which apraxia is more prevalent in adults and in males. Finally, it has been shown that an optic ataxia patient is less independent than the apraxia patient since the later can conduct his or her chores with minimal difficulties.

It seems as if the primary issue at hand, and to be examined, is the goal of a Human Science approach to Psychology. One the one hand it asks the question of what type of knowledge is produced through personal refection, which implies that the human part of the human science orientation is only concerned with the understanding of the subjective side of the human psychological processes. This process includes gaining an understanding of the meaning and relevance of values, experiences, and culture through the eyes of the individual. The science aspect comes in when that information is gathered, analyzed and embedded within a context.  Here is where the first, seemingly contradictory element of a human science approach to psychology begins if the goal of human science is not to predict and control, then why bother with attempting to understand I think that the goal of human science is to predict and control human behavior, its just that academics and researchers discovered that they had a bit of a problem when analyzing the human. They had to figure out how to come to terms with the many binaries that blend together in various forms to create the unique experience of every human being, so they thought to combine the humanities and the sciences to provide a wider lens for doing so. A great idea in theory, however, without the proper philosophical framework to integrate the disciplines, all of the research and information gained is nothing more than fragmented aspects. The model went from a reductionist framework, which was too limited in its paradigmatic scope, to a post-modernist framework, which is too disjointed. Is there a philosophical framework that can integrate, and make sense of the seemingly contradictory elements of man There is.
 
The post-modern perspective focuses on alternative discourses and meaning rather than on goals, choices, behavior, attitudes and personality (Roseneau, 1992). Confidence in emotion replaces efforts at impartial observation, relativism is preferred to objectivity as fragmentation is to totalization. When applied to the humanities, Post-modernism claims not to seek to improve and perfect the social sciences (like psychology), but to make their underlying assumptions explicit and to undermine their foundational claims (Roseneau, 1992). In a way, post-modernism is like a teenager who feels as though their identity has been in some way stifled by its parents modernism and natural laws. Postmodernism felt the desire to strike out on its own, and to form a new identitybut in reality, all it did was create the same reality as its parents, just at an opposing pole. In all of its attempts to re-define thought and the nature of things, it forgot that it still lives in its parents house  planet earth, and as long as it exists in as a concept in the minds of humans, which is also a part of the body of humans, it is still subject to the same natural laws as humans. Postmodernism cant disregard the tenants, validity, and significance of natural law, unless it agrees to, in the process, invalidate everything about itself.

Whether Postmodernists want to admit it or not, the fact still remains that natural law contains within it, positive law (laws created by man, including the concept of post-modernism), since all objects  that exist are nothing more than matter and energy, and objects include thoughts (Nicosia, 2010). The philosopher DHollback, a mechanistic materialist and hard determinist, holds the position that everything in the universe is matter, which follows physical laws. He inductively reasons that if matter is subject to laws, and laws determine the actions of things, then everything is matter and is subject to and determined by universal physical laws. Adding to this view, he points out that even the process of birth is beyond the will of the individual and since the brain is made of matter and all it produces is matter, will (a product of the brain) is nothing more than a modification of the brain. He further asserts that any idea or decision is still a product of the brain, which is matter, and therefore subject to the laws of determinism. This is a fact, and will remain a fact as long as humans live and operate within the context of the third dimension here on planet earth. Therefore, the scientific method and natural science will always be valid for what it does observe, describe and make testable inferences about natural processes of living organisms in the biological world. Once this fact is recognized, Post-modernism, can easily be placed within the paradigmatic framework where it belongs as a part of the humanities, since the type of thinking that it utilizes is not beneficial unless it is connected to a human behavior. After it is given its proper home, then we can examine a meta-philosophy that ties it in harmoniously with science in presenting a unified totality of the human experience.

The late philosopher Soren Kirkegard addressed this issue in his essay eitheror, in which he framed the moral dilemmas of man on a binary  man either lives either an essentially hedonistic life or a virtuous one (Kirkegard, 1992).  A better framework, or philosophical meta-theory to be used, by all parties involved would be on that makes space for both points of view to be integrated, and is therefore an and perspective. Using an and perspective would immediately de-escalate the tension of the conflict because it would in essence allow both parties to say to one another you are right in that you have a perspective that you perceive as valid. If we were to isolate either side of the human experience, we would be doing nothing more than succumbing, yet again to reductionism. However, using a philosophical framework that integrates seemingly contradictory elements gives both the opportunity to exist simultaneously, as they are. In order for this to occur, though, each element must be properly defined and used appropriately, neither attempting to define or re-define elements of information outside of their respective scope. If human science were able to keep this distinction clear, I think that it would make invaluable contributions to an understanding of man and all of his various aspects, separate as they may all be, yet all under the same umbrella.

For the rest of this paper, I would like to do something unconventional  I would like to remove the comparative framework, or the vs element. Instead I would like to work from the more inclusive and framework to unify the remainder of my analysis. In doing so, I would like to agree, that observation can be used as a personal reflection, but the term observation does not pertain to the eyes, and therefore is not referring to observation in the traditional scientific sense. It is referring to the internal process of reflection, which, is by nature subjective since it requires the subject to reelect, which, naturally, is subjective, HOWEVER, the process of reflection, is objective in that it is a psychological process that all human beings are capable of doing. This explains why the information gained about human experience from subjective reflection is objective  the topics are all a part of the various human experiences, except they are expressed subjectively, depending on the subject in which the experience is contained.

Rike attempts to help the young Franz to understand this complex arrangement between the subjective experience of the self and the paradox of how this reflective process is directly linked to the objective processes that humans experience  but he does do without using the sophisticated philosophical analysis by which we describe and identify phenomena today. He simply points out the contradictions, and advises Franz to wrestle with them as he may

You are looking outside, and that is what you should most avoid right now. No one can advise or help you - no one. There is only one thing you should do. Go into yourself.

Here, Rike informs Franz that there is nothing that he can find outside of himself for validation, as the only true validation is the sincerity of his work. Paradoxically, as soon as he is able to do that, he will gain the external validation that he seeks, since others will praise his work if it can grasp the essence of their own universal human processes. He also points out a sometimes harsh reality about the individuals experience of life

ultimately, and precisely in the deepest and most important matters, we are unspeakably alone.
While there is physical reality to the suggestion that as humans we are often alone, and that we are alone in two of the most profound moments in life itself, birth and death, it can also be noted that we are only alone in the psychical sense. In the sense of experiencing human processes, we are inextricably connected to our fellow man when we experience feelings of loneliness, fear, love, heartache, and all of the other aspects that are universal in the human experience. We can again see the combined reality of the individual and collective human experience when Rike says that he cannot advise Franz of anything and points him to self-examination in order to find the answers that he seeks. This gesture displays an artful, accurate, and logical contradiction Rike says that he cannot advise Franz as he does just that, and says that he cannot give him the answers, as he does just that by pointing him to where he may find another layer of answers, which lie in his subjective experience of reality. Removing the contradictory elements is, therefore, only a matter of definition and semantics, as is the notion of an inclusive paradigm. When one points out that what Rike is really saying to Franz is that no one can advise you on the subjective reality that is your interpretation of universal human experiences. Having an inclusive framework allows for such philosophical bridges, since usually, when using the vehicle of language to communicate processes that are not directly experienced by the senses, or are, but in a state that is removed from immediacy, it is semantics that can bridge or isolate concepts, perceptions, and frameworks of reality.

In this way, all of what Rike offers to Franz is therapeutic, with the role of the therapist being to examine their own internal processes, which are universal, and then guide the client to a better understanding of their own. This assertion is further validated when Franz strongly asserts that Franz be his own poetic north star

Always trust yourself and your own feeling, as opposed to argumentations, discussions, or introductions of that sort if it turns out that you are wrong, then the natural growth of your inner life will eventually guide you to other insights.

Rike suggests here that if Franz sticks to an authentic expression of his experience, this authenticity will lead him beyond any conceptual or perceptual short comings, and by staying patient with and in his creative process, he will ultimately be able to manifest his experiences with fidelity towards his internal processes and this will be reflected in his work. Rike is again prophetic for his time as he continues to attempt to define and lead Franz to understand that there is a philosophical framework that integrates all of human experience, and that he should look to find it in his work

(if man) can remember that all beauty in animals and plants is a silent, enduring form of love and yearning, and he can see the animal, as he sees plants, patiently and willingly uniting and multiplying and growing, not out of physical pleasure, not out of physical pain, but bowing to necessities that are greater than pleasure and pain, and more powerful than will and withstanding.

Rike asserts that every process in nature has both elements of pleasure and pain as a part of different phases of its experience, and therefore since it contains both elements, its own nature is more than simply the sum of both of its parts. In his own way, Rike is suggesting that the reductionist framework is not an appropriate one for poets to use in their exploration of themselves, nature, or the human experience.

There is no shortage of post-modernistcontructionalists philosophers who would have us believe that there is no one to one correspondence between propositions and reality (Sarup, 1993) with Derrida stating that he only believes in a system of floating signifiers, pure and simple, with no determinable relation to any extra-linguistic referents at all (Sarup, 1993). Post-contructionalists go further to critique the subjectauthor, as an originating consciousness, and authority for meaning and truth (Sarup, 1993). Derrida and Foucault wanted us to believe that human reality is nothing more than a structure and that human beings are subjects (Sarup, 1993)  and our connection with reality is a product of signifying activities which are both culturally specific and generally unconscious (Sarup, 1993). They, in essence, wanted us to believe that there is no true form of truth, and if it were, how would man, in his ongoing use of symbols (language) and symbolic interaction, be able to perceive it This is where the notions of truth vs fact got skewed, and thus threw a skew in the interpretations of both notions in the minds of most people in academia, who would even suggest that post-modernism could be a meta-theory that can be used across the disciples. They failed to realize that all forms of human behavior, are set within the context of the natural law, earth, and all of the rules that govern it, therein. However it should be noted that the Post-contructionalists are correct in an aspect if we are determining and defining truth within a universal context there is no way to determine it in actuality because we are restricted by language. The argument against the connection between facts and truth was again, based on the inconsistencies of symbolic language, and the notion that when the language changes, so changes the truth. Again this is true within the universal context of what may or may not be true, but we do not live at the macro-cosmic level if anything, we live within a small micro-cosom called earth, in the 3rd dimension, and are thus restricted by the laws of it, and the laws of our avatars, the human body governed by sensory perception.

In order to understand the truth as facts about the nature and function of living things as they operate in the sphere of earth in the 3rd dimension, one must seek to understand the laws as defined in metaphysics, biology, and natural law. Combining humanism and science to understand psychology is a step in this direction, except that it needs to go one step further by integrating the two based on defining the roles that each discipline will play. As a writer, and developing social scientist, I complete agree with this entire presentation, when framed against a philosophical framework that integrates the binaries and what appear to be contradictions in the human experience. I had some trouble digesting the notion of having to pick one philosophical framework over another to define and describe human experience, this unification is much, much better in that it offers a clarity from which I feel comfortable creating and exploring my own human experience. Yes, it is true that there are human experiences that are subjective, but they are only subjective in the unique form in which they manifest within a person. The experiences themselves are not unique, they are universal, as Rike points out in his own way. Yes, humans can thus, be studied from a humanistic framework that focuses on description, refection and articulation, as is advocated with the postmodern framework, while simultaneously being studied from a scientific framework that relies on observation, in the physical sense, and analysis. Both the scientific and human parts can link in that the human elements can provide science with new insights about which universal processes, as articulated through subjective experiences, trigger or withhold certain predictable and controllable behaviors. This way, human science can successfully be a blended discipline, in that it works from a larger philosophical framework that allows for contradiction, yet seeks to find a way to unify.

Individuals suffering from psychological health issues were normally accommodated inside psychiatric institutes but at the present, within the United States, they are more and more being detained in prison. If reality, one out of each 10 patients are at present accommodated behind bars with the common prisoner populace, which currently represents more than an approximated 500 000 of those detained around the state. The New Asylum movie is a one hour movie which is set in Ohio prison system where an approximated 16 of prisoners are psychologically ill and need special services like medicine and follow- up that a good number of facilities within the prison are not constructed to offer. Patients therefore have turned out to be delusional, dejected, and desperate owing to being housed within a jail facility. (Weckowicz, T, E, 1984)

The most upsetting thing I have learned from watching this video is that jails have turned out to be the latest state psychological health facilities since health amenities were methodically shutdown owing to policy alterations and budget cuts. As a matter of fact, detention centers are constructed to offer refuge and protection for the neighboring inhabitants, not psychological health services. It is more shocking to discover that an approximated two million inhabitants are imprisoned within the United States, of which a quarter of them have psychological problems. (Weckowicz, T, E, 1984)

Persons suffering from mental health issues require special services like remedy and follow- up which can be effectively provided in psychiatric institutes where the patients are attended to by clinical psychologists, psychiatric specialists, in addition to social workers. These specialists assemble information through such techniques like case studies, individuality and aptitude tests, as well as experimentation. They bring into play certain abnormal psychology theories which explain psychological diseases, propose probable causes of these sicknesses, and recommend certain ways of treating them. These theories can be split into the following four major groups (Weckowicz, T, E, 1984)

(1) Existential stresses the significance of up-to-date experiences and the
individuals outlook of herself or himself.
(2) Intrapsychic focuses on the emotional foundation of abnormal demeanor.
(3) Biophysical emphasizes the significance of causal physical origins of
mental disorders.
(4) BehavioralEmphasizes the effects of learning on demeanor.

The fact that, psychologically ill prisoners have a high rate of coming back following parole since they time and again discontinue taking their medicine, thinking they do not require it any longer and are healed and that a number of prisoners suppose jail makes their situation better relates to some observation I have made. I have observed that a number of young men with mental disorders in my neighborhood have been dubbed prison lovers because their entire life evolves from going in prison at one moment and getting out at another.

Introduction
statement of the problem and definition of dementia
         
Dementia is a mental disease that manifests itself through loss of ability to make proper judgments related to life of a normal person. It is characterized by progressive loss of cognitive ability caused either by aging or consumption of alcohol in large quantities for a long period of time. However, despite the fact that many people think that dementia is associated with the old the discussion will show that it can occur at any stage of human development.
       
The following discussion will major mainly on the research problem of whether caring, observation and attentive listening can be a useful way in which the people suffering from dementia can be helped to adjust their behavior. There are many ways that have been tried to help these patients such as the administration of drugs but they have not been successful in catering for the emotional need of them. It is with this in mind that this research seeks to address other ways to assist in shaping the behavior of people with dementia.
                                                           
Discussion
b) The Review of Literature
Much of the work on dementia has also been done by other various persons and organizations as a way to understand it better and offer the way forward. One of such work was done by the Alzheimers Association (2005) from the End of Life care for people with dementia from residential care settings. According to them, their source of motivation to carry out that study was because over sixty-five percent of the people living in nursing homes died. They also discovered that most of the people with dementia, to be precise about seventy one percent died after the first six months. Therefore they were out to provide other better alternatives and recommendations to the problem as taking people to the nursing homes and taking them through medication was not really doing much to improve the condition of the people with dementia.
     
According to this researcher, he collected information from about 300 articles that were from 1994 to 2004. From these, he decided to settle about 158 articles since their information had been obtained mainly through experimental or quasi-experimental methods. From their findings, they observed that medical treatment was actually inappropriate as it mostly exhibits negative consequences that could lead to reduction in the functions of the patient leading to death and also the rate of its success is normally low.
         
The other thing that he called for was the staffing of qualified nurses and increasing the number of the physicians. The patients with dementia need to have someone who is there to interact with them in a conversation helping them to feed and any other thing that they may need done for them. Qualified staff will help to handle these patients in the best way possible with an aim to see positive improvement in their behavior, condition of their mind and the ability to do some things without much support from the family members of the nurses themselves. The increased ratio of the physicians to the patient is seen also as the way to ensure that every patient is attended to in the best way possible.
     
The research also found that the main infections of people with dementia are urinary track infections, coetaneous infections, upper and lower respiratory track infections and also the gastrointestinal and eye infections (Perls, TT, Herget M. 1995). This has been attributed to the decrease in the immunity of their body as dementia progresses in their lives. There are also other problems associated with this which includes pain while swallowing, (Janssens JP 2004). This makes many patients refuse to eat as they cannot bear the pain. They may also experience pain as they chew food. The two processes which are very important in the life of a patient could eventually be inhibited. The people really affected are the family members who have to take care of these patients and also the nurses. The two must ensure that the patents take food even if it means using alternative methods such as the use of tube feeding.
         
The other area that is affected is the health of these patients according to the research. Advanced dementia patients may not eat at all and even those that feed they have poor eating habits. This problem of deterioration in the health of the patients has also been attributed to either failure from the nurses themselves or the physicians (Katser J, Schell E. et.al 1999). The nurses could be unwilling to help the patients have food or failing to insist that they must eat. This could be because these patients are seen as though they are stubborn and deliberately refusing to eat but in the real sense it is because of the pain that they feel. The second thing is that a nurse might have quite many other patients to take care of therefore they might not concentrate on one patient for a very long time. That is the main reason why this research is calling for the increase of staff to handle the patients effectively.
       
Finally, the literature also after learning that the medical intervention has not been so successful in dealing with the challenges faced by people suffering from dementia, calls for palliative measures as an alternative to medical treatment. This will mainly involve being involved emotionally with the patient as a way to understand what they are going through and encourage them to remain active in a way to express their feelings rather than waiting until the situation has deteriorated and then taking them to hospital.

The Intervention Method
After going through the above literature review and looking at some intervention methods that have been used in the passed such as medical intervention, I decided to use communication as an intervention method aimed at bringing about the change in behavior of the dementia patients. Communication is the transfer of information or ideas from one person to the other and it is very important in keeping the patient active both in the mind or emotionally (Powell J.A. 2000).
   
Communication has been sees as a way to improve the lives of people with dementia even though at certain stage of their life they cannot express what they feel as Goldsmith M. (1996) points out. Through communication, the family members taking care of this patient or the nurses are able to determine the state of the problem of whether the person can still talk and express their feelings in a coherent way or not.
       
However communication as an intervention method will become effective when it is done from the initial moments and not waiting until the advanced levels. It is good that all the people taking care of the patients show patient as the patient might be very slow in their communication as some of them might be looking for the words to express what they are feeling( Sabat S.R. Cagigas X.E. 1997). This has been the area where most of the people involved in providing care find so hard and therefore go for the other alternative methods which will not be very effective.
       
Despite the fact that it will be hard to make out what the patient is saying, it is encouraged that communication should continue as a way to know the cognitive status of this individual as Santo Pietro M.J. Boczko F. (1998) urge. Patient therefore need not run out and positive results will be realized.

methods
As we have already seen, communication deteriorates with the advance of dementia. This means that at times it is very difficult for the patient to externalize their feelings for the carers to know what they are going through. It is with this in mind that it formed a rationale for development of a way that will ensure that communication will be maintained regardless of the stage of dementia. Several attempts have been developed with an aim to improve communication and make it more effective.
     
The University of Sterling was very concerned about the problem and this motivated them to work hard and eventually came up with equipment that saw improvement in communication. They called it Talking Mat. This is a system of simple pictures and symbols and usual communication methods. The equipment has been said to have very profound positive effects as far as communication is concerned. It is said to improve the repetitive behavior from the patient and also help the patient remain focused in the conversation.
       
The methods to be used to find out whether communication and effective listening will assist in helping to improve the behavior of people with dementia are qualitative methods. These are methods that are used to come up with subjective information from the targeted population. Reason for these methods is because the researcher will be seeking to understand the subjective feelings of the person and therefore the use of quantitative methods such as the experiments will not be very appropriate. The other reason is that the researchers of social sciences are more concerned about the meanings and understanding of the experiences and as a result they will be dealing with the methods that will enable them collect data, analyze it and use it to make inferences and conclusions. Qualitative research therefore looks at the world in a more subjective way since the researcher has to understand the feelings of the subjects.

Some of the data collection methods that could be used in qualitative research include   the direct observation, participant observation and the unstructured or structured interviews (socialresearchmethods.net). Qualitative methods are said to have helped much in understanding the people with dementia (ageing.oxfordjournals.org)
     
Direct observation method will be used by the researcher who will be interested in making a comparison between the patients who used talking Mat in communication and those that did not use. The researcher can just visit any one nursing home and make that kind of observation and eventually he will get to tell whether there is a need for that equipment or not. One of the advantages of using this method is that it saves time and some better technology such as video recording can be used. The disadvantage is that there is no contact with the subject and therefore at times it is hard to tell their feelings.
   
One of the best methods used in qualitative research is the participant method of data collection. This is a method that involves the researcher going and becoming part of the subject of study and strives to understand them as they also participate in the activities of these subjects. This is what makes this method very effective. In this research, participant observation will be very useful since the researcher will be interacting with the patients to see how their behavior will be changing in the course of the time they will be together. This method however is slow since one has to adapt and understand the culture of these people better and on the other hand it is very expensive. However, the data collected here is very reliable.
   
Interview is another method that can be used to collect information. The interview could be either normal which is also called unstructured or involving written form or structured. In the structured interview, this will involve the administration of questionnaires that the respondents will be required to fill. In our case here, the respondents will be the family members who have been taking care of the dementia patients or the nurses. The questions will be structured in a way that will cover the time when communication did not involve the use of the equipment and the time when it was employed.
     
The unstructured interview involves the general interaction with the respondents. This is great since the researcher can move the conversation in any direction and be able to collect as much data as he or wishes. However, there is a disadvantage of taking a lot of time with one respondent unlike in the structured interview where several respondents can be reached within short period of time. The other disadvantage is that it may make the researcher lose the objective of his research as he may get carried away by other distractions and the emotional state of the subject.
     
To prove that the validity and reliability of using the Talking Mat, the patients could be divided in three categories. One of the categories will use the normal conversation, the other will use the structured conversation and the final group will be required to apply the Talking Mat in their conversation. Proper observation then needs to be taken in the three groups to determine if there will be a difference in the way the patients articulate words, whether they have any difficulties in talking and finally if they can concentrate on the conversation and keep to the objective. At certain times though the carers will be needed to respond to how they have seen the progress.
       
Such is a study that was carried after the introduction of the Talking Mat as was pointed out by Joan Murphy, Cindy M. and Sylvia Cox (1999). The three groups were studied for a certain period of time and when the results were out, there was a lot of improvement noted in the people using the communication equipment.
       
The study found an increase in the time for the conversation. Under normal circumstances the patient will either look for words or will not speak at all especially in the advanced stage of dementia. Even those that communicate, they can not last for a very long time since some of them will get carried away by what is happening in the surrounding or they will even forget that there was a conversation going on. However, with the use of a Talking Mat, time for conversation is observed to increase significantly giving them time to express their emotions.
         
Another observation made is that it is able to make them more coherent and pass the message that makes sense. In the groups that used normal conversation, it was found that they either went off-tasks or they lost sense of the conversation. This being the case, communication becomes so difficult requiring intervention from the carers as a way to understand what the patient feels. However, as we saw earlier, most of the carers do not have the patient and they will dismiss them as soon as they realize that successful communication is not taking place and that they cannot figure out what the patient is saying. They therefore seek for other alternative intervention methods such as medication which as we saw, are not very effective in changing the behavior of the patient. However, the use of the talking mat has provided a solution here as the patient is able to focus on the topic of discussion and make sense.
   
Another observation made was that the level of concentration increased drastically when the talking mat was used as compared to normal conversation. The eye contact was also observed between the researcher and the patient. Concentration is very important in every communication. This basically involves listening to what one is saying before you begin talking. It has been observed that these patients are able to externalize their feelings in a more mature way and at the same time they become sensitive to the feelings of the researcher. This is actually a great move since under normal conditions this people will not communicate their feelings.
   
It has finally been found to be even much effective to those showing early stages of dementia. Apart from improving their time of conversation, concentration and coherent in their communication, they have been observed to have a greater improvement in their reasoning and the power of decision making (Joan Murphy, Cindy M. and Sylvia Cox 1999). They improved to the point that some made a decision of what to do at certain times in their lives rather than staying passively and having everything done for them. It has also helped them to remember what they said and this makes it even more useful in making the follow up to the patient.
       
Going by the above discussion and observations, our hypothesis and the question are well substantiated by the facts observed. Therefore, we can say boldly that the social workers need to be well trained and willing to apply the communication as the best intervention method which demonstrates care, love and concern with an aim of improving the behavior of the people with dementia. With the above observation also, our question of whether the approach of caring, direct observation and use of attentive listening can be used to improve the behavior of people with dementia, has been answered with a positive answer.
                                                             
Conclusion
Many intervention methods have been used as a way of treating the people with dementia but to no greater results. There has been a need to improve the condition of this people because the research has shown that keeping them in homes does not really help much as some of them die immediately while others in the first six months.
     
It is with this in mind that the use of communication as an alternative method was developed since apart from it being a way of passing information about oneself, it is a form of therapy and most of them will have their traumatic experiences healed. It also keeps the interaction between the family members and the patient and this shows a sense of love and care. Relieving the stressful emotions keeps the person energized and hopeful of facing life positively.
       
Finally, a lot remains to be done as far as research is concerned in getting the real cure for dementia. Therefore as a researcher it is important to know the main causes of dementia and going beyond that point to sensitize people on how they can prevent themselves against such ailments. It will be also good to let the people know that it does not only occur in the old age as most of us perceive it.     Therefore until the right cure of dementia is obtained, the research will be still on in order to help very many patients out there in nursing homes.

There is a surprising increase in the number of women who are murdering their own children and molesting children.  Women who murder their own children do not have a specific profile or outward appearance which would make it easier to identify these individuals.  Post partum conditions such as depression or psychosis offer some explanation to the heinous behaviors.  Women who develop post partum psychosis have a 4 chance of killing their own child or children according to Natasha Mitchell, host of All in the Mind.  Women who develop post partum depression are more likely to become suicidal.  Women who sexually abuse children experience some form of a psychotic break.  Some women are pre-disposed to sexually abuse because they were sexually abused as children.  The woman sex offender is more than socially competent, but she becomes fixated sexually.  Chemical treatments with SSRIs and Prozac are currently being used in conjunction with CBT with a focus on desensitization.
   
The female sex offender fits into the Cognitive theory of abnormal psychology.  This is especially true if the female was also abused as a child.  This deviated form of classical conditioning requires the therapist to retrain the female in pertinent areas of response with regard to specific feelings.  Females who murder their own children fall into the Psychodynamic theory.  The Psychodynamic Theory focuses on past experiences which influence current behaviors.  Freud believed that an event could be experienced as a child, and it could be stored in the subconscious forever.  This repressed memory could have a devastating effect on the individuals ability to function as an adult within society.
   
These conditions could incite fear in women who are of childbearing years.  One never knows how things will turn out post delivery.  Husbands should be educated as to what behaviors to watch out for after their wives give birth.  One can never be too careful these days.

The nature of addiction is like a downward spiral.  Science now views addiction in two ways.  The medical identity of addiction focuses on the disease model, while the other view simply views the individual addict as morally a bad seed.  Addicts can be addicted to illegal drugs, alcohol, or prescription drugs.  Addicts often speak of wanting to quit or having tried to quit, but then something happens and before they realize it they are using again.  These patterned behaviors become the central focus of an addicts life.  Whether the addict is part of the medical identity focus or the bad-seed focus, the threat of legal ramifications is ever present.  As the addiction progresses, maladaptive conduct becomes a regular part of the addicts lifestyle.  Sometimes the addict gets a wakeup call or reaches rock bottom and enters a rehabilitation program before encountering the legal system.
   
The Cognitive Theory of abnormal psychology supports the belief that behavior is learned, thereby producing specific behaviors in relation to certain thoughts and ideas.  Some children are conditioned to respond to stresses in life by reaching for an illegal drug, a drink, or a prescription pill.  Children absorb much of their parent or parents behaviors like sponges.  These maladaptive responses become normal reactions to a child.  Some children are pre-disposed to addictive behaviors simply by having a biological mother or biological father who was an addict.  From a behavioral perspective, one could assert that the addictive behaviors are the result of poor modeling or classic conditioning.
   
Addicts do not need a reason to use their drug of choice.  The brain manufacturers its own reward system for not using or in situations where they feel they need to use.  Addicts do not know how to use in moderation.  This behavior puts the individuals health and physical well-being at grave risk.  Rehabilitation is the best way to treat addictions, not jail or prison.

Both Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow describe a healthy person as one who challenges him- or herself to be fully human.  For Maslow, the definition of full humanity does not only include the desire to actualize ones potential but also the capability to actually do the same.  Rogers, on the other hand, describes a healthy personality as a process, which may be understood as a lifelong challenge to keep oneself fit and able not only to surmount difficulties in life but also to stay content and go on striving to achieve greater goals.  What is more, both Rogers and Maslow explain the differences between unhealthy and healthy personalities, helping their readers to incorporate the characteristics of the latter as though being fully human is truly a process that each individual who cares for his or her wellbeing should opt to undergo.  Even though it is only Rogers who refers to the healthy personality as a process rather than a state of being, it is perfectly clear that Maslow cannot define the hierarchy of needs, metamotivation, metaneeds and metapathologies, etc. without his readers experiencing the urge to self-actualize by first fulfilling all their lower needs.  Besides, the self-actualizer, according to Maslow, does not stop fulfilling his or her potential, gaining knowledge, enriching his or her life experiences and trying to be all that he or she can be.  Hence, the self-actualizer is always in the process of self-actualization or maintaining a healthy personality (Healthy Personality, 2006).
   
Rogers also wrote on self-actualization.  In his opinion, maintaining a healthy personality is the same as striving for self-actualization.  But this is not an easy and painless process, as it requires individuals to attain and maintain mastery over their lives instead of forcing themselves to adopt societal norms.  Thus, an individual trying to maintain a healthy personality must be open to experiences, including both positive and negative feelings.  This openness to experience must accompany the thought to live in the present.  Instead of dwelling on the past or the future, a healthy person indulges in existential living, enjoying life as it goes, at the same time as he or she is aware of the fact that both positive and negative feelings are a part of human nature and life is not always a bed of roses.  Moreover, Rogers wrote that a fully functioning individual, that is, one who possesses a healthy personality, must trust his or her feelings and decisions made on the basis of feeling rather than rely on the intellect alone for solutions.  This individual must feel free and capable of achieving his or her goals.  Furthermore, a healthy person must be spontaneous and creative rather than bound by hard and fast rules at all times (Healthy Personality).
   
Rogers views a healthy personality as a courageous individual who would like to fulfill his or her goals, being happy for him- or herself as he or she continues to strive for perfection in his or her being and circumstances in life.  A healthy person works to maintain his or her health by continuously striving to achieve greater goals with contentment in existential living.  Rogers does not have a list of goals for the fully functioning individual to achieve, unlike Maslow who describes a range of needs for the healthy person to fulfill before he or she can strive for self-actualization.  Hence, Maslows process of self-actualization appears more difficult than Rogers.  An individual has to fulfill his or her physiological, safety, love and belonging, esteem, cognitive and aesthetic needs before he or she can strive for absolute perfection, which is self-actualization in Maslows terminology.  According to Maslow, it is unhealthy not to strive for self-actualization.  Once an individual has fulfilled his or her need to self-actualize, however, he or she is fully human or fully functioning.  In other words, the process of achieving a healthy personality is over by the time an individual has reached the stage of self-actualization, that is, being all that one is capable of being or having achieved everything that one had set out to achieve (Healthy Personality).
   
All the same, the self-actualized person, according to Maslow, cannot lose his or her zest for life or experience despair, depression, constant tiredness or discomfort after achieving all goals in life (Healthy Personality).  Rather, the healthy person maintains health in the mind and body with the following characteristics, some of which are included among Rogers list of characteristics of the fully functioning personality
       
En efficient perception of reality a general acceptance of nature, others, and oneself spontaneity, simplicity, and naturalness a focus on problems outside themselves a need for privacy and independence autonomous functioning a continued freshness of appreciation mystical or peak experiences social interest interpersonal relations a democratic structure discrimination between means and ends, between good and evil an unhostile sense of humor creativeness and resistance to enculturation. (Healthy Personality).

Maslows comprehensive description of the healthy personality is better able to help readers striving for self-actualization.  Rogers does not mention that it is important to look outside of oneself, be democratic by nature or a lover of knowledge.  Then again, Rogers is more concerned about being free as a unique individual who may or may not feel compelled to serve others nor feel comfortable in a democratic setting.  Hence, readers of Rogers and Maslow may feel free to incorporate characteristics of healthy persons that suit them best, according to their own feelings.  In fact, both Maslow and Rogers allow their readers to think creatively enough to develop their own conceptualizations of healthy personality if they will.