Psychology

Many researchers and psychologists have grown fond of suggesting that the main goal of the society is to strive for the greatest happiness. However, how to create happiness remains to be a significant issue to every individual (Nolen-Hoeksema and Wisco, 2008). Happiness is largely independent of the circumstances that one faces in life. For example, wealthy people are not much happier than those from the middle class (Oswald, 1997), or it cannot be completely proven that the married people are happier than single individuals. Moreover, though there is evidence to prove it, it cannot be empirically concluded that every healthy person has greater happiness compared to those who are ill (Oswald, 1997). These initial arguments show the complexity with which the determinants of happiness are proven through empirical means.

Studies have been conducted to explore human happiness. Most people implicitly believe that happiness is desirable and meaningful and is, therefore, an important goal (Helliwell and Putnam, 2004). Happiness is one of the most essential aspects of experience as human beings, as it provides many positive benefits for both the individual and society in general. Thus, the discovery of factors which influence this desirable outcome is worthwhile. This paper aims to discuss two theories of happiness, along with empirical studies that aim to elucidate this construct.

Theories on Happiness
Proposing the most diverse answers to the root of happiness, philosophers have difficulty in lending empirical credence to their theories. (Easterlin, 1995). The evolutionary-cybernetic theory, though, concurs with social and psychological observations on the factors associated with happiness (Heylighen, 1992). First, it asserts that in a constantly changing world, fitness is the most basic value which allows any organism to thrive. Cybernetics adds that for such living systems, fitness can be achieved by having control over unfavorable occurrences that preclude the individual from reaching the goal state. This theory concludes that the more control an organism has over a situation, the more disturbances it can survive, and thus the higher its fitness will be (Mayer-Kress and Barczys, 1995). Furthermore, control is not only focused on the present situation rather it evolves by expecting more disturbances from the goal state. Connecting this idea to happiness, majority of individuals are aware that happiness is a subjective experience of well-being (Heylighen, 1992, p. 39) and relates to how much individuals are satisfied with their lives in general. Therefore, ones sense of happiness is almost similar to life satisfaction (Diener, 1984).

The evolutionary theory of happiness makes it clear that there is a connection between the neutral aspect of fitness and the personal experience of feeling good. Feelings are known to warn an organism to stay away from a dangerous situation and turn towards a more positive one. Thus, feelings play an important role in choosing the most appropriate actions and are signs of whether an organism is nearing a favorable state (Stewart, 1997). Through the evolutionary theory, it has been concluded that a happy individual satisfies all basic needs, regardless of any possible troubles or disturbances within his or her surrounding environment. Additionally, it states that one must have the necessary resources and opportunities for the satisfaction of needs the ability to identify such resources and effectively apply them and confidence in ones self that he can face any given situation (Heylighen, 1992).

Lyubomirsky (2001) suggests that happiness is brought on a number of motivational and cognitive processes that may have a significant impact on ones well-being. Lyubomirsky (2001) has contributed much towards understanding why some individuals are happier than others. Through the study of motivational and thinking processes to distinguish happiness, it has been suggested that happiness may be associated with how individuals compare themselves to their peers (social comparison) how they give their reason for their decisions in life (dissonance reduction) their judgment of themselves (self-evaluation) and how such individuals think about others (person perception). Research suggests that these processes either have a positive or negative influence on happiness and are, therefore, important in explaining the differences among people in terms of well-being (Lyubomirsky, 2001).

Lyubomirsky, King and Diener (2005) indicate that happy and unhappy individuals differ in how they deal with difficult situations and in their strategies for coping with adverse conditions. For example, truly happy individuals interpret their regular life events with in way that will allow them to maintain their happiness, while unhappy people emphasize unhappiness in the conventional experiences of the day. In short, happy individuals are those that experience and respond to situations and events in a more positive, adaptive and flexible way (Lyubomirsky et al, 2005).

Lyubomirsky and Ross (1999) conclude that happiness has numerous positive outcomes which benefits individuals, families, communities, and society in general. These include better work outcomes such as a higher income, increased productivity, and better work quality enhanced social rewards encompassing longer and more satisfying marriages, more friends, and stronger social interactions and strengthened physical health covering a stronger immune system and lower levels of stress. Schwartz, Ward, Monterosso, White and Lehman (2002) have also discovered that happy individuals display more signs of creativity, care, concern, confidence and control as well as better coping and adjustment abilities.

Empirical Studies on Different Levels of Happiness
Through a series of experiments, Sousa and Dickerhoof (2006) aimed to find out whether certain actions were directly associated with happiness. Among 225 students attending college courses in a public university in Cleveland, a study was carried out to test the effectiveness of three possible strategies that permit individuals to make conscious decisions. These include setting some time to remember events or situations for which they were thankful for engaging themselves in controlling and positively thinking about themselves and regularly committing acts of kindness and selflessness (Sousa and Dickerhoof, 2006).

Out of all the 225 students, the largest percentage 69 believed that recalling moments of gratitude stirred up happiness while 41 believed that self-confidence bolstered their happiness and allowed them to take positive actions along the way. 22, though, did not agree and feel that being confident about themselves will keep them happy for a long time due to the difficulty that they have in trusting and believing in themselves. On the other hand, 36 felt that they accomplished something significant while performing certain acts of kindness which, they agreed, increased their level of happiness. These findings suggest that a positive attitude towards oneself as well as in the surrounding environment will strengthen levels of happiness and improve well-being. Those who continue to move towards a negative attitude, however, will not get out from this particularly unhelpful state unless they take on a more positive and constructive way of behaving towards themselves and others as well (Sousa and Dickerhoof, 2006).

Blanchflower and Oswalds (2005) study primarily revolved around the happiness and well-being of a certain country, Australia. It was found that Australians are generally the 3rd happiest of all the citizens from other English-speaking nations. Using the data that were provided by the U.N. Human Development Index, a sample of 50,000 individuals from 35 nations were taken as participants and results of the survey showed similar findings to those of Ng (1997). From a scale that runs from one with the lowest and seven as the highest, many Australians ranked their level of happiness as 5.39 and their job satisfaction at a lower 5.04. It was also found that for most Australians, money can buy a certain degree of happiness however, increase of salary has been given less importance compared to major life events such as marriage. Moreover, women have been reported to have a higher sense of well-being compared to men, while two of the greatest negative experiences in life are divorce and unemployment. Education was also associated with level of happiness. Additionally, there is adaptation and adjustment which goes to show that both positive and negative experiences effects wear off once people have adjusted to such conditions.  Finally, it has been concluded that happiness gives an individual the potential to value things which are more important than wages such as marriage and other meaningful social relationships (Blanchflower and Oswald, 2001).

Moreover, the study of Furnham and Cheng (2000) was carried out among 230 young individuals in London who completed a series of questionnaires that measured their personality, self-confidence and happiness. The study aimed to identify the primary root of happiness among youths who belonged to the age range of 18-24. 62 were females while 37 were males, and findings mainly show two factors that were directly associated with happiness. These were optimism and contentment. The study suggests that when individuals are contented because their needs are satisfied, they have a greater possibility of increasing their sense of happiness. In addition, when people take on a positive way of dealing with situations and are open and flexible, it is likely for them to attain long-term happiness and contentment (Furnham and Cheng, 2000).

Conclusion
Various studies have focused on determining the causes of genuine human happiness. The empirical outcomes vary. Happiness is one of the greatest goals of individuals, and a plethora of factors influence its attainment. Some people are happier than others due to their positive attitude towards the conditions that they face every day and life in general. They also have a higher sense of happiness because they recognize the things that can satisfy their needs, leaving them with lasting contentment. Material things do contribute to happiness to a certain extent however, meaningful social relationship ones perspective about life and optimism amidst adversity are stronger influences to ones sense of happiness. Openness and flexibility likewise determine ones well-being and happiness, as attested to by research outcomes. At the end of the day, happiness is a matter of perspective and choice. Humans strongly influence their achievement of well being, and the latter is dependent on how the see things, and how they correspondingly cope.