Psychology

The field of psychology displays a wide array of theoretical frameworks which explain the various complexities involved in the learning process. These perspectives include the behavioral, cognitive, constructive and social cognitive perspectives. Each and every one of these broad perspectives encompasses theories which may differ in magnitude and approach but are all directed at expounding on the ways that the human mind is able to grasp knowledge and retain it in the process of learning. Education has over the years been guided by such theories in its practice especially in the application of classroom instruction.

This paper seeks to analyze three theories based on the last three perspectives mentioned above. In the analysis, the theories will be evaluated in relevance to their practical application to, but not limited to, k-12 learning. The theories under evaluation include Paivios Dual Coding Theory which emanates from the cognitive perspective. This theory establishes the duality which exists between verbal and visual information (Paivio, 2007). It has been used considerably to promote classroom instruction in K-12 learning as it will be reflected in the paper. Moreover, it shows remarkable capacities in the retention and transfers of learning amongst K-12 learners.

Under the constructivist perspective is Vygotskys Theory in Cognition. Developmental psychology has indeed been a crucial part of education today and this has led to the incorporation of this theory in learning. It emphasizes the societal influences of learning. Culture impacts greatly on the learning process, a concept which Vygotsky uses to explain the learning process. Apart from that he also dwells on the relationship between though and language in cognitive development. In the final analysis the paper will focus on a social cognitive perspective of learning represented by Albert Banduras Theory of Cognition. This theory considers the notion of efficacy or the learners confidence in his ability to carry out a certain task.

According to the Dual Coding Theory, cognition involves the separate activity of tow cognitive subsystems (Paivio, 2007). These subsystems include the verbal system which deals with language and the non verbal system which specializes in non linguistic objects which are basically non verbal. From this perspective there emerges a both auditory and visual representation of the human brains capacities. In essence this theory recognizes the existence of particular representational units in the brain which are triggered when an individual identifies, manipulates or even thinks about objects or words. This theory bears its roots from the past use of imagery as an instrument for aiding memory. Research has often exhibited that the human memorys efficiency is elevated when an individual is able to create mental images for the verbal materials in question. It is from this point of view that the emphasis on memory has grown extensively and incorporated vast application of imagery especially in the learning process. The concept of objects is highly emphasized mostly because it is said to hold greater significance than plain verbal language in comprehension. However, both systems are crucial to the overall success of the learning process.

In the education application of this theory stress is put on the development of an individuals non verbal system at an early age signifying the basis for later on cognitive skills. Cognitive growth is highly dependent on how rich the early non verbal encounters are. In addition, it is also highly associated with the language experiences which make the dual coding process complete. Learning instructions which are founded in the dual coding theory principles are used in k-12 learning especially in the learning of reading skills, written skills and mathematical skills. K-12 first grade learners who are beginning readers have been found to read concrete words faster with the inclusion of pictures in the words. This is especially in comparison to when the words are only accompanied by their pronunciations. Reading comprehension and the learning of vocabularies is also enhanced through the use of image instructions. This trend is not only observed in k-12 learners but also throughout the education spectrum. On the other hand, learners are able to write more legibly and memorably through the use of imagery and dual coding.

The No Child Left Behind Act has accelerated the use of imagery in classroom instruction especially due to its emphasis on the use of instructional practices which increase learning. The use of instructional videos has elicited research in this area with the intention of evaluating the effectiveness of imagery in the learning process. Cradler et al, (2010) reflects on the results of such a study. K-12 learners who were exposed to instructional television in classroom learning were seen to outshine those learners who had not been exposed to this form of instruction. Furthermore, they scored high in written composition, used figurative language frequently, applied creative perspectives in problem solving, became highly active in discussions and learned better when more imagery was used.

Visual imagery has been found useful in the learning of new words and definitions. Through the use of mental imagery learners depict vital elements of the content like certain events and settings and are also able to create meaning between these elements. Furthermore, the use of pictures in classroom teaching cues learners and lessens the complexity of tasks and improves memory. In the learning of vocabulary various principles of the dual code theory are applied. Initially when presented with a new word learners are required to personalize the meaning. Then they are expected to gather different sources of information in respect to the word. Finally, they must connect this information to the concepts of the new word. The dual code theory views semantic memory as being distinct from knowledge due to its use of actual events. As such this theory becomes a perfect exemplar of the fact that knowledge is derived from both verbal and non verbal occurrences.

The Dual Coding Theory has also influenced great results in mathematics environments. In the study illustrated in Moyer-Packenham and Suh (2007), it was concluded that dual coded representations are capable of enhancing the potential of learners understanding mathematical concepts. From the understanding of such basic mathematical concepts like numbers, learners are able to grasp the names and meanings of different numerals when there are objects or images associated with them. Furthermore, the use of various representations is responsible for the strategies applied by students in problem solving. On the other hand, in the teaching of fractions learners who are allowed to use both visual images like equivalence mats and symbolic notation systems like computer numeric representations have better problem solving skills than those who only use single codes.

Regardless of the strengths that this theory represents in the learning instructions of k-12 learners there are studies which have identified instances when visual imagery is not effective in the enhancement of learning. Gallegos-Butters, and Schneider (2008) asserts that when learners are ware that they will have the accompaniment of visual objects to the sound component they are using, they tend to over rely on the visual images. However, learners who have no access to these visual accompaniments are able to utilize their full potential at working hard and ensuring that they retain the information.

In Vygotskys theory in cognition there is an assertion that culture is the main determinant of an individuals personal and intellectual development. Initially, the theory was developed in retrospect to Piagets theory which greatly emphasized the interaction of a child with the environment. Vygotsky claimed that there are observable changes in childrens abilities to resolve problems. These changes in experiences were necessitated by the presence of cultural factors which allow for higher thinking. Vygotsky saw culture as what teaches learners what to think and the modes of thinking (Daniels, 2001, p.39). Moreover, through the dialectical process learners acquire knowledge from experiences from their social interaction with others. For instance, problem solving skills can be acquired by a childs encounter with a teacher.

Another principle which guides this theory is the aspect of gradual allocation of responsibility from the individual interacting with a child and later to the child. As learning advances the child learns to use their language for intellectual adaptation. Moreover, it is through the same concept of language which makes it possible for the retention of learned concepts. Internalization encompasses the complete grasp of knowledge content as a child learns to use their internal language. One fundamental concept stressed by Vygotsky is that there is an identifiable difference in what children are able to do alone and what they can achieve with help. This is also referred to as zonal proximal development. The further this gap widens the more difficult it becomes for a child to attain intellectual development while the reverse is seen to work positively. With respect to this, teaching instructions are meant to be adjusted in order to fit the childs level of development.

Vygotskys theory of cognition has been identified as a valuable foundation for the improvement of learners intellectual abilities in K-12. In his exploration of the different types of speech, Vygotsky sought to showcase how the society and the individual self interact within the learning process. Both social and private speech allows learners to comprehend various ideals and skills. Instructions given by a teacher in the classroom are social speech which the learner tries to understand through their private speech. They relate to what the teacher is saying and apply what they observe and hear to other similar situations. As such they are able to solve similar problems on their own. Also, internal speech signifies the learners thoughts as they try to grasp the teachers instruction and it is this internalization which allows them to gain the capacity for high intellectuality.

K-12 curriculum which puts emphasis on Vygotskys theory ensures that the instructional design allows for the social interaction of learners with both the cultural environment and the learning tasks. Therefore, emphasis is put on the fact that teachers should help learners carry out tasks which they cannot complete on their own. As a result, the teacher lowers themselves to the leaners level which not only enhances the learning process but it also gives the leaner confidence to exercise their knowledge and apply it to problem solving. In addition, assessment modes are also designed to incorporate both the actual and potential development of learners. In general, this theory calls for modeling and guided practice instructional methods.

Blake and Pope (2008), illustrate the use of think aloud strategies in classroom teaching. Students in lower grades can learn through talking about the teaching instructions they have been given. This strategy will assist the learner to comprehend how to get meaning from basic instructions. As learners listen to their teacher read aloud a particular text, thoughts start forming in their minds and eventually with time they are able to come up with responses to various problems. Apart from this, the technique of thinking aloud allows teachers to identify problematic areas for the different learners. Questioning methods also serve the same purpose and they heighten the social interaction process.

In a K-12 classroom of either third of fourth grade students, Vygotskys theory can be emphasized in the learning of language arts, sciences and mathematics. In doing so, such strategies like discussions, group activities, peer tutoring and guided learning are incorporated into the learning process. For instance mathematics instructions are scheduled in a way which makes it possible for the interaction of both group work and independent work. Independent work is important because it gives learners room to develop their own learning strategies (Gredler  Shields, 2008, p. 121).

One major limitation of this theory especially in relation to classroom learning instruction is its vagueness. There are educators who claim that the theory fails to provide direct and clear guidelines on how it can be used in achieving success in the learning process. While scaffolding may help learners, there are instances when it hinders learners from showcasing their full potential. It is thus evident that when scaffolding is comprehended as a form of direct instructions, it can become quite ineffective and hence counterproductive. Furthermore the over reliance on scaffolding could become an inconvenience for the learner in the learning process. This is because the interaction which exists between the child and the teacher may end being dominated by the adult leaving no room for the learner to gain intellectual fulfillment. In spite of these limitations, vygotskys theory continues to influence todays education system and the various instructional strategies have been incorporated into other school set ups.

Albert Banduras social cognitive theory encompasses both behavior change and modeling concepts. As such the learning outcome which is symbolized by change of behavior is dependent on the environment, individuals and the behavior. Furthermore, this theory also takes into consideration the concept of self regulation. It is through this that knowledge learned is retained. Another fundamental concept is self efficacy which basically refers to an individuals confidence in completing or performing various tasks. This concept has played a major role in the learning process throughout the life span stages. This theory places emphasis on ones cognitions especially in being able to control various behavior outcomes. The mind is reflected as a vital force which not only controls ones reality and regulates behaviors but also allows for selective encoding of information.

The implications for learning instructions in this theory involve teachers being role models for their learners and assisting them to acquire self regulatory and self efficacy behaviors. Through a learners interaction with other people, the environment and behaviors, new and positive knowledge is acquired. Bandura also identifies various processes which are involved in the modeling process. They include attention, motor reproduction, retention and motivation. The teacher as the model directs certain behaviors for learners by giving them various instructions. Through imitation, the learner follow the teachers example and this imparts in them with the basic concepts of the content being taught. In addition, modeling allows for self monitoring of learners and it this which eventually results to self efficacy. After imitation both positive and negative reinforcements are used in order to encourage good behaviors and discourage bad behaviors in learners. The last step paves way for the learner to comprehend what behaviors they can retain which then amounts to increased knowledge.

The social cognitive theory in K-12 learning is implemented through the application of the mentioned concepts. In the teaching of grammar in sixth grade, learners are exposed to various examples of sentence constructions which are provided by the teacher. From the observation of these sentences, learners become aware of the similarities and concepts which seem to emerge in their construction. From henceforth they venture into creating their own sentences. Reinforcement is usually incorporated in form of rewards to learners who are able to create sentences which serves as motivation. In a K-8 classroom, there are other ways to apply this theory. The classroom can be utilized as a learning community where cooperative learning, differentiated learning and support for self efficacy can be accommodated.

In cultivating learners to become more self regulated the teacher encourages learners to take individual responsibility for their learning experience. In emphasizing this, learners self reflect and assess their past learning process and make decisions to change the negative behaviors and reinforce the positive ones. Teachers who apply the social cognitive theory in their teaching strategies emerge with a class of learners who are highly motivated and in charge of their learning (Abromitis, 2010).

Computer usage in most schools has been adapted effectively with direct emphasis on the levels of self efficacy in both leaners and teachers to accommodate new learning strategies. Chao (2003) explains in a research study that the application of self efficacy can reflect attitudes which would play a role in the formulation of future teaching strategies. Learners are able to formulate resolutions for their learning problems by drawing on inner knowledge and power.

The above learning theories have reflected various strengths and weaknesses which are specific both in approach and application to k-12 learning. The dual cognitive theory possesses a firm foundation for the creation of learning strategies for learners in lower grades who are just familiarizing themselves with various concepts. However, its perspective can be applied in other stages of a learners development. Vygotskys cognition theory has been observed to be highly implemented in k-12 learning instructions. Its emphasis on culture, scaffolding and the zone of proximal development provides direct instructions for teachers to follow while effecting learning in their classrooms. Finally, a look at the social cognitive theory by Albert Bandura brings to light the importance of self efficacy, modeling, self regulation and reinforcement in the learning process.

Learning theories have created a conceptual framework for education. Without these theories the education system may have been lacking in respect to its ability to foster learning, growth and development of individuals. An overall study of the above mentioned theories implies the need to incorporate all these theories in k-12 learning. This is possible in creating learning and teaching strategies which draw from the dual code theory, the cognition and self cognitive theories. In essence they all possess valuable lessons which can benefit the learners intellectual capacities.