Psychology

This section presents a review of previous studies that have examined relationship satisfaction and its predictors in an attempt to construct the foundation for an investigation of how age gap or age difference impacts the level of relationship satisfaction. There is a paucity in research that explores the impact of age gap or age difference in relationship satisfaction among intimate partners. Extant literature, however, suggests that age is an influential factor on how couples explain and conceptualise love and measure satisfaction in close relationships. This literature review intends to examine the theoretical background of the concept of relationship satisfaction, studies examining love as predictor of satisfaction, and previous studies that explored the role of age on love attitudes and relationship satisfaction.

Satisfaction defined
To people who are engaged in a close relationship  marital, cohabiting, or serious dating - the issue of satisfaction is significant. Satisfaction is tied directly to whether or not a couple ultimately stays together or breaks up (Hendrick, Hendrick, and Adler 1988).  Determining how satisfaction can be measured in order to find ways for couples to stay together has led to various researches on the subject.

By definition, satisfaction is one of many terms used to evaluate a close relationship and is viewed by some social scientists from either the relational or individual perspective (Glenn, cited in Hernberg and Hojjat 1997 43).  Satisfaction refers to a partners subjective, affective experiencing of their contentment and happiness over their intimate relationship (Hernberg and Hojjat 199758). The individual perspective treats satisfaction as a judgment that is reflective of couples subjective feelings about their relationship while the relational perspective treats satisfaction as an evaluation of actual relationship behaviours.

One of the major determinants of relationship satisfaction is love (Hendrick, Hendrick, and Adler 1991, and Hendrick 1995). A widely-used approach to studying love is the multidimensional theory developed by Lee (1973) which presents six major loving styles Eros or passionate love Storge or friendship-based love Ludus or game-playing love Pragma or practical love Mania or possessive love and Agape or altruistic love. This framework has been the basis for the construction of several measures on beliefs and attitudes about love, among them the Love Attitudes Scale (Hendrick and Hendrick 1986, 1990), the Relationship Assessment Scale (Hendrick 1988), the Sexual Attitudes Scale (Hendrick et al. 1985), and the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (Spanier 1976).

Hendrick et al. (1984) pioneered one of the most significant researches on relationship satisfaction using Lees theoretical model on love. A study was conducted involving over 800 students from the University of Miami where participants were asked to complete a 54-item Love Attitudes Scale (LAS). Gender differences were concluded on responses of the participants on the scale. Males were inclined to report erotic and ludic attitudes towards love whereas females were manic, pragmatic, and storgic in terms of love attitudes. Subsequent studies have confirmed gender differences in love styles and beliefs regarding satisfaction.

Age as predictor of love attitudes and relationship satisfaction
Studies have aimed to determine predictors of relationship satisfaction by evaluating attitudes and perceptions toward love. The relation of age vis-a-vis love attitudes or relationship satisfaction has not been explored as thoroughly as other individual traits such as sex or relationship experience (Hendrick, Hendrick, and Adler 1988, Hendrick et al. 1994, and Hendrick and Hendrick 1995). These studies have pointed to significant gender differences in love attitudes and beliefs about relationships (Hendrick, Hendrick, and Adler 1988, and Worobey 2000). Moreover, majority of the studies aimed at examining love attitudes or sexual attitudes have focused on the very young (Grote and Frieze 1994 and Gall et al. 2002). Social scientists have also generally drawn answers about love using samples of college students, but there have been studies that sought to examine interpersonal relationships and relationship satisfaction across the life span.

Age could be a significant factor on how partners measure relationship satisfaction and on characterising relationship behaviours that lead toward it. The general assumption is that Eros or passionate love declines with age, although this assertion has been challenged (Hendrick 1995). Some studies suggest that intergenerational attitudes toward love are similar. Inman-Amos, Hendrick, and Hendrick (1994) used the Love Attitudes Scale to determine where significant differences can be observed on the attitudes of parents and their adult children toward love. The study reported that younger and older generations do not differ significantly in describing relationship satisfaction in terms of passionate love (Eros) and friendship-oriented (Storge) love. In a similar fashion, Contreras et al. (1996) wanted to examine love attitudes in a cross-cultural sample of participants who were 30 to 60 years old. All age groups indicated that passionate love (Eros) is strongly predictive of satisfaction in close relationships (Contreras et al. 1996412).

On the other hand, Reedy, Birren, and Schaie (1981) concluded that older and younger partners in a marriage differ in perceptions of satisfaction. The study concluded that older partners in a relationship generally equate satisfaction in love and relationships with traits such as mutual dependability, commitment, and loyalty. Younger generations, on the other hand, value long-term commitment and loyalty less and emphasise on honest communication.

Grote and Frieze (1994) examined love as a predictor in marital satisfaction across the middle-aged married population. Comparing it with the perceptions of younger couples, the study concluded that age leads to differences on how couples attributed marital satisfaction on love styles. Younger couples were more endorsing of game-playing styles than middle-aged couples. Younger couples considered game-playing love as a positive predictor in relationship satisfaction whereas middle-aged couples viewed game-playing love as a negative predictor. The older couples attributed friendship-based love and passionate love as positive predictors of relationship satisfaction. Game-playing styles are considered negatively correlated to the length of a close relationship, meaning couples are less likely to endorse game playing as the years go by (Frazier and Esterly 1990343). The propensity to endorse game-playing styles are suggested to be found among persons inclined to form only brief relationships with a certain a person until another person convinces them otherwise.

Frazier and Esterly (1990) also determined the influence of age along with several factors such as gender, personality, and relationship experience in evaluating relationship attitudes.  Using a sample of 337 subjects aged 19 to 47 years old, the study utilised a combination of instruments, including the Relationship Assessment Scale (RAS) to assess relationship beliefs, relationship experience, gender-specific personality attributes, and relationship satisfaction. Sex and relationship experience were highly predictive of relationship beliefs.  The study found that men engaged in more game-playing in their relationships than women because they emphasise on sex more than women and place less importance on the emotional aspect of their intimate relationships.

Montgomery and Sorell (1997) conducted an assessment of love styles using the Love Attitudes Scale across four age groups a) single college-age adults b) married participants below 30 years old who are childless c) married persons aged 20 to 40 years old and d) older married adults aged more than 50 years old. Significant differences in love styles were observed among different age groups. Major differences were concluded on explanations of love across young participants and other participants. Younger persons tended to report higher manic love (Mania) and higher game-playing love (Ludus) than all the other age groups. Younger persons also reported less altruistic love (Agape) than the rest of the participants.

Butler et al. (1999) explored the relationship between age and love attitudes. Using the Love Attitudes Scale (LAS) as primary measure, the researchers used a sample of college-aged and middle-aged subjects and wanted to address two issues 1) the age generalisability of responses produced by the LAS and 2) the relation of age and scores of subjects on the subscales of the LAS. Butler et al. (1999) concluded that responses on the especially on the Mania and Agape subscales among college-aged and middle-aged subjects were generalisable, specifically on the female subgroup. Although there were significant relations between certain love styles and age, the study indicated that based on the data, general perceptions of love among people remain constant until the middle age.

Age can also be considered as a predictor of sexual attitudes, which forms a significant component in relationship studies. Gall et al. (2002) conducted an exploratory study on the relationship of sexual attitudes with variables such as age and religiosity. The researchers used a sample of 800 adult participants with ages ranging from 18 to 87 years old. The sample was grouped into four young adults (mean22.2) adults (mean37.24) middle-age adults (mean56.27) and older adults (mean70.84). The study utilised the 43-item Sexual Attitudes Scale (Hendrick and Hendrick 1987) which divided sexual attitudes into four subscales, namely Permissiveness, Instrumentality, Sexual Practices, and Communion. Gall et al. (2002) concluded that age is a significant predictor of sexual attitudes, particularly in terms of Permissiveness and Instrumentality attitudes. Younger participants reported higher permissiveness than older participants. Younger men appeared more instrumental in sexual attitudes than older men. This finding supports the results of studies which conclude that sexual activity declines with old age (Brubaker and Roberto 1987 cited in Johnson and Booth 1998220 and Levine 199879).

The impact of age in relation to the dyadic environment has also been studied. Johnson and Booth (1998) utilised the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (DAS) and found that dyadic interactions are highly determinant of marital stability but does not discount the influence of individual qualities such as age, sex, and mental health that could affect the quality of marriage (Johnson and Booth 1998 219).
 
Schmitt, Kliegel, and Shapiro (2007) endeavoured to investigate the impact of dyadic interactions in long-term marriages involving couples belonging to middle- and old-age groups. The study focused on how stable and dispositional factors in marital interaction predict satisfaction in long-term marriages.  Using measures that include the Dyadic Adjustment Scale, data from 588 married men and women in the middle- and old- age levels were gathered and the differences in age and gender were examined across several determinants of marital satisfaction, including personality, socio-economic status, and marital interaction. The study found that personality and socio-economic variables such as age play a minimal role in predicting satisfaction. Dyadic interactions were found to be significant in determining satisfaction. Women valued high quality marital interactions to be positive determinants of marital satisfaction. However, negligible age differences were noted among the responses of participants (Schmitt, Kliegel, and Shapiro 2007 290).

At present, there is little research that focuses on so-called age gap relationships or relationships wherein the difference in ages between partners in a close relationship is substantially high. However, there have been several studies on relationship satisfaction that have suggested how age influences love attitudes and measurements of satisfaction among couples. Findings have however produced contradictory results. Some studies assert that love styles and sexual attitudes could be generalised within age groups. Specifically, they purport that younger partners are more likely to view game-playing and possessive love positively while older partners view game playing negatively. Older persons were also found to emphasise more on altruistic love and passionate love, commitment, and loyalty, while younger persons place a lesser value on these relationship variables. Some studies also suggest that age is not a significant factor in satisfaction. Findings from the literature reviewed will assist in outlining and setting the framework for examining whether or not age gap or age difference impacts level of relationship satisfaction among couples.