Psychology

Psychoanalytic theory is the strongest of all theories and the most effective therapies are derived from it

Introduction
Psychoanalytic theory forms the strongest of all theories because the rest are largely derived from it and provides a holistic understanding of human development at different stages which makes it highly effective when applied in various therapies.  Psychoanalytic theory as Freud puts it, involved a longtime observation of psychological disorders as they developed from internal influences of an individual and then depicted in their behaviors.  Therefore, in concurrence with Barbara (2008) and Brickman (2009), Freudian view was conclusive and later theorists could only expound on it. 

At this point, some key questions that arise from the Freudian Psychoanalytic theory include who are the post Freudian theorists and what are their theories How do they relate with Freudian work  In particular, how do these theories compare with psychoanalytic theory How is psychoanalytic theory employed in various therapies How is the effectiveness of its application over time  It is from the above questions that that this essay expounds on psychoanalytic theory to depict its superiority and applicability in treatment. 

A brief analysis of psychoanalytic theory
Psychoanalytic theory was developed by Sigmund Freud at the onset of the 20th century in what Lieberman (2007) refers to as the greatest breakthrough of the time.  Sigmund Freud was greatly disturbed by his hysteric or neurotic patients who he found out to lack key organic link to their symptoms.  Consequently, he published the psychosexual phases in the three essays on the theory of sexuality which psychoanalysis theory is laid on.  According to Nelson-Jones (2005), the three phases of psychoanalysis theory the Id, the ego and the superego are defined as the psychic apparatus within which interactions and mental activities are described. 

Psychoanalytic theory outlook for the id refers to the unorganized section of an individuals personality and harbors the basic drives (unconscious part of the mind).  Freud considered the id to be the inaccessible unit largely reflected negatively and therefore a negation of the ego (Gottdiener, 2008).  In his study, Adolf (2007) indicates that a young child is id driven and therefore relies on a chain of impulses, satisfaction and instincts with little understanding of the immediate environment. 

Reference of the ego on the other hand is based on the reality principle and therefore emerges as a child or an individual begins to understand influences of the external world.  Adam (2008) agrees with Freud that ego forms the organized part an individual such as cognition, perception, executive functions and even defense.  Ego therefore presents the common sense and reason which are very critical in mediation between the id and superego.  How is this achieved  Freud explained in his three essays on the theory of sexuality that ego represents the conscious section of the mind and which ultimately restricts some of the ids demands in tandem with the societal expectations, norms (Brickman, 2009). 
Psychoanalytic theory indicates that the superego presents an even higher level of understanding that seeks to perfect the ego.   As Siegfried (2010) puts it, superego seeks to create the needed assurance of actions by the ego by subjecting them to further criticism on the expected outcomes.  To concur with Hayes (2004) and Clara et al (2008), the superego is indeed a contradiction of the id in that it factors the sense of guilt and wrong while seeking to pre-address the outcome.  By considering an individual from both an internal and external subsets with critical consideration of their expectations, psychoanalytic theory facilitates clearer understanding of major behavioral disorders that affect the people and ultimate solutions to address them.

Post Freudian theorists and their theories
As indicated earlier, key personality developmental theories that were developed after Freuds psychoanalytic theory were either directly derived of it or aimed at criticizing some of its major components. 

a) Erik Erickson
i) Stages of development

Barbara (2008) and Lieberman (2007) agree that the work of Eric Erickson was a direct derivative of Freudian considerations in human development.  Eric Erickson theory of psychosocial development concurred with Freudian view that life, development and challenges develop in stages.  Psychosocial theory further builds the notion of the ego which was largely brought out by Freud as external reality inculcation to ones mind.  Particularly, the stages of Erickson psychosocial development strongly cohere with Sigmunds work. 

Clara et al (2008) explain that stage one of Ericksons theory of psychosocial development is reflected through trust versus mistrust largely because the child is entirely dependent on the caregivers.  Like Freud mentioned the pleasure a child derives from oral stimulation, Erickson emphasized on the resulting intimacy as a platform in propelling the child to the next stages.  Therefore, Ericksons first stage borrows the concept of external environment in creating enough force for the next stage. 

In the second stage of psychosocial development, Erickson equally borrows from Freuds anal stage which is a critical training factor.  Nelson-Jones (2005) explains that from a higher consideration, Erickson argued that learning to go to the toilet gave a strong sense of control and therefore great independence. 

As Freud clearly brought out the notion of the ego, Ericksons third stage of initiative versus guilt emphasizes the assertion of power and control which plays an important role in the later stages development.  Erickson indicated that many children seek to assert their superiority among others but with careful considerations of the existing repercussions (Marrie and Janneke-van, 2007).  Notably, Erickson agrees with Freud that parents and caretakers must step in to facilitate the needed reassurance and therefore avoid guilt to their young ones.

It is however worth noting that Erickson strongly differed with Freud on how long development persists in an individuals life.  While Freud postulated that personality development only lasted to the genital stage when an individual starts getting interested in sexual relationship with those of the opposite sex, Erickson postulated that developed progressed to the old age (Busch, 2009).  However, scholars appear to be strongly divided with one group considering the latter Ericksons work to be based on criticism of the Freuds work and therefore its advancement (Barbara, 2008). 

ii) The notion of fixation
One resilient notion of Freuds work is the notion of succession between different stages.  Though they do not necessary cohere on time and expected repercussions, both theorists agree that people at different stages must go through them successfully or get fixated (Hayes, 2004).  Fixation as Henry (2009) point out denotes the inability to progress since latter stages are entirely dependent on the previous stages success.  Erickson argued that all stages present an individual with two negating outcomes positive and negative.  For example between year five to eleven, Erickson indicated that a successful individual will become industrious while the unsuccessful ones will suffer inferiority (Laura and Pam, 2007). 

b) Lacanian theory
In his work, largely referred to as the return of Freud, Emile Lacans concepts appear to be fully defined by the former (Adam, 2008).  Though Lacan strongly criticized the Freuds separation of the conscious (ego) and unconscious (id), he largely employed the same concepts in his work.  Lacan argued that the conscious and unconscious considerations of the mind were not different, but operated from a highly sophisticated and complex outline compared to Freuds consideration.  Locan mirror as Brickman (2009) and Gottdiener (2008) conclusions suggest is formative and a derivative of the experience an individual gets during development.  Therefore, the paradigm of the imagery to be effective during the younger years as opposed to the old age which is more subjective fits the Freudian connotation of development persisting only to the genital stage. 

Development of psychoanalytic theory and its application was largely based on practical experience of Freud with his patients.  As a result, the derivatives of latter theorists such as Lacan largely guided their application in therapies from Freud (Clara et al, 2008).  For instance, the Lacan three orders appear to directly replicate prior Freuds work.  Clara et al (2008) continues to say that Lacan view saw Freudian ego and its relation with the depicted image as a key source of alienation.  Therefore, Lacan pointed psychoanalytic theory to be restrictive and maintained a unit directional (less rigid) treatment orientation which he considered less effective (Karen, 2008).  As a result he proposed symbolism arguing that it presented a more expounded plane for understanding psychological disorders affecting the people. 

Summers and Jacques (2009) point out that Lacan consideration of symbolism expounds the signifier where various elements lack the positive existence, but are constituted in respect to their mutual differences.  As psychoanalytic theory underscores the behavioral construct of the people especially from the unconscious considerations, Lacan symbolism incorporates culture that has key drivers which control an individuals behavior.  Adolf (2007) argues that like Freud, the immediate environment in Locan view plays a critical role in determining the ultimate behavior and indeed the ability to address related disorders. 

The real and desire as Busch (2009) noted in their review, are equivalents of Freudian superego which seeks to gather further understanding in search for perfection.  Lacan considers real to lack the needed mediation and therefore a major object to anxiety.  As a result, anxiety as Busch (2009) further indicate, facilitates therapists understanding of psychological disorders and deriving mechanisms for addressing them. 

c) Cathy Caruth.
Over the years, the rising numbers of people suffering from psychological disorders has created a critical need for further extrapolation of Freuds work which appears central in addressing them.  Cathy Caruth in her trauma theory as Barbara (2008) noted set to create a reverse model of focusing to different problems that psychologically disturbed are faced with.  As a result, she concurs with Freuds notion of the subconscious and unconscious mind in deriving the possible causes of their psychological problems.  In an example highlighted by Kanofsky and Lieb (2007) and Adam (2008), Cathy postulates that in addressing post traumatic stress disorders, therapists should use survival as opposed to death.  Whereas this indeed appears as a major paradox, it facilitates the survivor to get the reality of what heshe went through by reflecting on it and therefore conquering the sense of defeat presented by the superego (Lieberman, 2007). 

Comparison of psychoanalytic theory with other theories
The superiority of psychoanalytic theory is even more evident when compared to other theories applied in different therapies. 

a)  Social cognitive theory
This theory was developed after a long period of observation on how an individual behavior develops.  Albert Bandura pointed out that though the environment is very crucial in determining the overall behavior, the resulting behavioral outsets are equally influential on the environment (Busch, 2009).  In a reciprocal model, the theory indicates that it is possible to change either of the two key factors (environment or behavior) by adjusting one of them.  Henry (2009) and Hayes (2004) argue that though the theory is indeed correct, it presents a narrow approach to holistically address behavioral problems.  Particularly, Laura and Pam (2007) acknowledge some factors that emanate internally from an individual and therefore not easily understood from the environmental point of view.  As a result, Siegfried (2010) explains that though application of social cognitive theory is effective, it requires major support from psychoanalytic theory in understanding the behavior arising from the unconscious mind. 

b) Theory of operant conditioning
Development of any theory as Nelson-Jones (2005) puts it is aimed at addressing a given societal problem.  Theory of operant conditioning seeks to address behavioral problems through conditioning the resulting behaviors by an individual.  Therefore, the voluntary behaviors (operant behaviors) are subject to key antecedent conditions that are progressively defined through reinforcement.  As a result, BF Skinner argued that by reinforcing a given particular behavior, it is possible to encourage greater frequency of its application by an individual.  On the other hand, punishing a given behavior reduces its overall application (Summers and Jacques, 2009). 

While this theory has gained great acceptance in different realms of behavioral changes outsets, analysts argue that it leaves out key underpinnings for greater efficacy application.  To begin with, it looks at an individual from only one dimension, conditioning the behavior, but does not gather a deeper understanding of the innate drivers (Karen, 2008).  As a result, psychoanalytic theory becomes superior in that it incorporates the environment as postulated by Skinner in explaining the deeper setup of psychological problems drivers.  Freuds notion of the id as Horney (2008) and Busch (2009) concur, calls for greater understanding of the unconscious mind and therefore difficult to address through conditioning.

Ofra and Hanoch (2009) differ with Marrie and Janneke-van (2007) on conditioning by indicating that it often fails to conclusively address personality and developmental problems arising from fixation at different stages.   Conversely, Adolf (2007) suggests that psychoanalytic theory brings a therapist to a clearer point of understanding the cause of a given condition and therefore addressing it for normal growth and behavior to resume.  Similar to social learning theory, operant conditioning theory requires effective input from psychoanalytic theory for it to be complete. 

c) Theory of moral development
Kohlberg s theory of moral development as Lieberman (2007) put it is perhaps one of the closest to Freuds psychoanalytic theory in that it underscores the role of moral reasoning to be the basis of the ethical behavior.  In a simplistic model, Kohlbergs three developmental stages (pre-conventional, conventional and post conventional) greatly borrow psychoanalytic theory outlook.  In the pre-conventional level, the notion of self interest can be compared to the id in the Freudian work.  An individuals interests at this time are innate and therefore unconsciously controlled by the mind.  In the second level, Marrie and Janneke-van (2007) point out that Kohlberg considered the environment to take a more defining role for personality through conforming to societal norms.  This level coheres with the ego stage of psychoanalytic theory when an individual senses become subject to the environment and therefore invoking reality in himher.

In the third level, post convention stage, this theory invokes an even higher level of sense making for individuals whose mental abilities are expected to be greater in foreseeing what is right or wrong.  The nature of self becomes subject to further criticism by considering implications that particular actions infer to others (Clara et al, 2008).  In a similar mode, psychoanalytical theory super-ego focuses on an expanded platform for an individual that dictates their ability to associate with others.  As a result, the two theories create an important understanding on mechanisms that therapists can use to steer psychologically disturbed people in reducing their problems.  However, the emphasis on justice in the moral development theory has excluded key values while inadequately addressing others that fall outside its jurisdiction (Nelson-Jones, 2005 Adam, 2008). 

Application of psychoanalytic theory in various therapies
Psycho analytic theory as Horney (2008) and Gottdiener (2008) emphasize, is applied in many therapies for addressing the behavioral and psychological disorders.  Such therapies include the following.

a) Psychoanalytic therapy
According to Karen (2008), psycho analytic therapy is a treatment model that is directly derived from psychoanalytic theory.  In this model, a therapist makes the patient lie in a relaxed position and listens to them as they talk.   In this case, psychoanalysis therapy focuses largely on identifying the major events that led to the problem.  As a result, a therapist is able to grasp not only the origin but figure out its further progression in an individual.  Adolf (2007) argues that owing to the fact that this therapy gathers information on a long time basis, conclusive resolutions are easily arrived at.  In a Freudian manner, (Barbara, 2008) explains that this therapy is based on the belief that experiences that occur during an individuals growth, unconscious feelings, and even motivations are crucial factors in maladaptive behaviors as well as mental illnesses.  In his view, Adam (2008) differs with some scholars who indicate that this therapy is time consuming and expensive.  In particular safe and calm environment creates an effective model for patients to offload and share their burden with therapists. 

b) Behavioral therapy 
Behavioral therapy is a major therapy applied to facilitate change of behavior for an individual.  Notably, this therapy is based on the work of BF Skinner whose experiments indicated that through contingency management behavioral activation and restriction can be achieved (Hayes, 2004).  This therapy as indicated earlier, borrows greatly from psychoanalytic theorys reference of the conscious mind as an important aspect in behavioral change.  Incorporating social skills training further builds on the ego which facilitates greater reasoning, acceptance of reality and ultimate assimilation of a more acceptable behavior in the society. 

c) Cognitive therapy
Reference to psychoanalytic theory in cognitive therapy is evidenced from its orientation to invoke the unquestioned thoughts (unconscious mind) for a mentally disturbed person.  According to Busch (2009), this therapy entails modification of beliefs and ultimate change of behaviors.  A therapist therefore establishes a close collaborative relationship with his patient and then moving out of it as he brings the reality and subjects him to change.  At this point, reaching the unquestioned thoughts challenges the mode of thinking which invokes a greater sense of reality.  Therapists argue that application of the cognitive therapy in addressing depression, the negative schema for most people are acquired during the early ages of their childhood or adolescence.  The depressive attitudes must therefore be looked from a psychoanalytic theoretical point of view in creating an acceptable model for the patient (Summers and Jacques, 2009).  By considering the patients past experiences, psychoanalytic theory forms a major platform for focusing on realities and therefore avoiding resilience of similar problems.   

d) Group psychotherapy
Over the years, Nelson-Jones (2005) reports that group therapy have continued to gather momentum due to its inherent efficiency in addressing mental disorders.  The therapys efficacy as many analysts agree is largely derived on its application of psychoanalytic theory ideals.   To begin with, analysts consider the ability to explore the unconscious mind and then subjecting it to the present environmental delineation as critical in drawing new mechanisms of addressing similar issues.  While conducting group therapy, a group of clients are treated together where they learn about each others problems (Adolf, 2007).  By opening up about their problems, patients realize that they are not alone in their suffering.  They develop a sense of identity and the need to maintain the bond as they seek common solutions.  With the help of their therapists, patients are able to build up on the success stories of other members and therefore own them.  Nelson-Jones (2005) further applauds this therapy by creating the needed internal self driving force that makes them easy to face latter challenges.

e) Parent-Infant Psychotherapy
Kanofsky and Lieb (2007) explain that children who suffer from different psychological disorders can only be addressed through a careful understanding of the unconscious mind.  However, this can only be done through evaluating the intimate relationship they hold with parents or immediate caretakers.   Parent-child psychotherapy therefore employs Freuds stages of development through understanding the parents experience during childhood, their expectations and relationship with others that are part of the childs environment.  Horney (2008) explains that in a psychoanalytic system, a therapist plays the role of an observer between the parent and a child in order to provide an alternative means for a child.  By bringing about the parents memory as a child, a therapist easily makes the parent to avoid possible issues that could have caused problems and therefore set a better platform for the infant to relate even with others (Marrie and Janneke-van, 2007).

Criticism of the theory and its application
Superiority of this theory consideration would be incomplete without talking about various criticisms presently referred as Freud wars.  Ofra and Hanoch (2009) point out that psychoanalytic theory can only be said to be pseudoscience because major claims attached to it are neither testable nor refutable therefore they cannot be falsified.  Then, Joanna (2005) claims that psychoanalytic theory lacks the empirical clinical evidence like that depicted by others such as social cognitive theory and operant conditioning.  However, application with high efficiency in addressing psychological disorders as Ofra and Hanoch (2009) further point out appears to greatly outweigh the critics. 

Conclusion and recommendations
It is from the above discussion that this paper concludes by supporting the thesis statement, psychoanalytic theory forms the strongest of all theories because the rest are largely derived from it and provides a holistic understanding of human development at different stages which makes it highly effective when applied in various therapies.  It came out from the discussion that psychoanalytic theory is the main baseline upon which key latter theories in psychological and personality development are based on.  Particularly, later theorists used the notion of Freuds consideration for conscious and unconscious mind to develop their theories.  Indeed, even those who strongly criticized Freudian work could not deviate from using some of his theoretical delineations.

In its application on different therapies, psychoanalytic theory superseded other theories by giving major results as per the expectations of the psychologists.  It further came out that though many therapists do not purely employ psychoanalytic theory to their patients it is assimilated at one instance of another in deriving better understanding of the problem and establishing more workable solutions.  Though the critiques indeed have a strong case against the theory and application of related therapies, the results speak for themselves.  Its wide acceptance by more psychologists indicates not only its ability to create better understanding of the psychological problems, but forms a baseline for application with highly definite results.  However, there is need for further research into the theory and application in psychology.