Psychology

Leaning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior through experience and practice.  Learning occurs in different ways and in different patterns. However, several theories and theoretical explanations do exist in the verge of explaining and defining learning in a more logical manner. Various psychological theories have been posed by different scholars in explaining the process of learning and knowledge construction. For instance, there are cognitive theories, social behavioral theories, psychoanalytic theories and the like. However, all these broad categories exist in one way or another in trying to explain human behavior and more so mental processes, knowledge construction and learning. Each broad category of these theories   has got unique theoretical explanations and beliefs on how human beings learn and acquire knowledge (Kohn, 2001).
For the purpose of this, more focus will be emphasized on creating an understanding of how human beings learn through a thorough exploration of the behaviorists theories who explain the process in which human beings learn from an environmental perspective. Behaviorist is a group of theories who believe that human behavior is shaped by environmental experiences and influences which results to learning. Behaviorists believe that the environment plays the most critical influences in human learning and shaping of the human personality structure and behavior (Michael, 2006). There are three prominent behaviorist theorists who have highly been accredited for their scholarly work in presenting different theoretical overviews based on how human beings learn, and the influences the environment posses on their learning process. Thus, according to behaviorists the environment is the most sole determinant of human behavior and the learning process.
The environment can be enriched to enhance learning while on the other hand the environment can be impoverish and hinder learning. In this reference, the paper offers an analysis the work of Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson and B .F Skinner and their theories on classical and operant conditioning. The three theorists hold similar hypothesis and ideologies towards the process in which human beings learn and acquire knowledge.
Classical conditioning is an important type of learning that was actually discovered accidentally be Ivan Pavlov way back in the year 1849- 1936 with his great experiment with dogs. Ivan Pavlov was a Russian psychologist who is considered to be the founder of the classical conditioning theories while doing his research based on understanding the digestive systems and patters in dogs. Evan Pavlov staged an experiment with dogs which were restrained in an experimental chamber (Kohn, 2001).  Evan Pavlov began presenting meat powder to the dogs at the same time observing their responses through the use tubes which had been inserted into the body system through various organs in order to measure bodily responses elicited by such stimuli. 
Pavlov discovered that whenever he presented the food to the dogs they begun to salivate way before the food was presented at hand. The dogs even began salivating way before the person holding the food entered the room. Pavlov gained a lot interest into this kind of phenomena and gave it his attention to discover the hidden truths behind it and abandoned his initial experiment on the digestive patterns in dogs.  Fascinated by this new phenomena, Ivan Pavlov begun pairing the food with a sound just before the meat powder was be presented to the dogs (Edward  Miller, 2004). He would ring a bell any time before presenting the food to the dog, and he realized that dogs would salivate at anytime when food was presented and a bell rung as well. The experience was even more fascinating and after presentencing the paired experiences (food and bell) several times, through observation of responses Ivan realized that dogs would salivate towards the stimuli.
 Ivan later with drew the food and begun to ring the bell alone. He observed that even after withdrawing the food dogs would also salivate. It was from this analysis and experience with dogs that Ivan Pavlov drew a conclusion based on his experience on classical conditioning. Ivan labeled this kind of phenomena the psychic reflexes (Brown  Nancy, 2002). Through this experiences Ivan developed the stimulus response connection bonds which form the basis for learning. Ivan coined in the idea of stimulus response reactions in relation to learning. Meat powder alone would cause the dogs to salivate just by sensing its smell. Meat powder would naturally trigger salivation in dogs and he referred this as an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), while the natural salivation response he called it Unconditioned response (UCR) respectively. The bell and salivation were however not naturally occurring therefore, dogs got conditioned to responding to the bell any time it was rung (Michael, 2006). Ivan referred the bell to as conditioned stimulus (CS), while salivation caused by the bell was referred to as conditioned response (CR).
From this experience Ivan drew the Stimulus response theory (S-R Connections) where he explained that, natural stimulus from the environment elicits natural responses.  That is to say, unconditioned stimulus (UCS) elicits unconditioned responses (UCR). While on the other hand conditioned stimulus (CS) elicits conditioned responses (CR).


   

Thus, through paring of events the dogs became conditioned to the sound of the bell such that they would respond to it even without the food being presented them.
In order to confirm whether these principles could be applied on human subjects Ivans ideas were further expanded by John B. Watson.  John B Watson applied these ideas on human subjects to in order to confirm Pavlovs hypothesis ((Michael, 2006). Watson staged his ideas by studying an eleven month old child known as baby Albert.  His goal for the study was to condition baby Albert to fear and become afraid of white teddy bears. So just like Pavlov, he presented a white teddy bear to baby Albert which he developed and formed interest with. With time Watson began paring the white teddy bear with a loud jarring sound (UCS) anytime before the bear was presented to the child.
                At first before paring the variables, baby Albert showed no fear or any sign of fear. After several pairings of the bear with the jarring sound, Albert developed fear for all teddy bears which were white in color (Kohn, 2001). The loud noise represented (UCS) while the induced fear represented (UCR). The implications for the study suggested that by use of classical conditioning phobia can be created in human beings the someway Ivan conditioned dogs to salivate without food. Human beings produce both automatic and involuntary responses to both natural and neutral stimulus (Roche, 2005). This kind of classical conditioning is other words known as respondent conditioning. Both animals and human being learn through forming association between events.
               That is when one event occurs another is bound to occur shortly after. Human beings learn mastery of concepts through paring and association of events. For instance, during childhood transitions from home to school, children may develop interest with the school environment or hatred depending on the prevailing circumstance (Edward  Miller, 2004). A welcoming school environment enriched with adequate play materials will adequately invite the child. This kind of an environment replaces the home environment as the child pairs the school with good experiences. However, in classroom learning teachers develop different thematic contents in the process of teaching by pairing them with good experiences in order to reinforce learning (Michael, 2006).  For example, at preschool years, teachers make use of songs, poems, and demonstrations to introduce and accompany learning. In mathematics skills teachers device short mathematics songs to aid children in mastering number counting skills. Any time the teachers introduces the subject with such kind of a song, it triggers the learners mind that it is mathematics time (Kohn, 2001). Through this kind of teaching children form interest with the subject which consequently leads to mastery of the concepts.
               In hunger stricken areas especially where schools have feeding programs for young children children tend to forms interest with the school environment due to the kind of rewards it offers. Children learn to associate the school environment with pleasing experiences. As a result this leads to improvement in performance and consequently reduction of absenteeism and school drop out. Thus, the environment is the greatest shaper of human behavior and experiences (Brown  Nancy, 2002). Environment can be altered to make human beings what you want them to be. Thus the environment is flexible and it can be enriched to impoverish to make man become what you want him to be.
               Besides Pavlov and Watson, skinners presented yet a similar ideal based on classical conditioning which demonstrated how human beings  gets to learn through the use of various principles in the environment such as reinforcement and consequences. Skinner called his experiment the operant conditioning theory.  He staged his experiment with a pigeon howl which was kept in a cage. Inside the cage he placed an electric lever which had some food pallets (Roche, 2005).  The pigeon howl was denied access to the external environment therefore on becoming hungry it began jumping up and down inside the cage. Instantaneously, it would jump and hit the electric lever, and anytime the lever was hit food would pour on the ground.
             At very first time it was purely incidental and the pigeon did not intend to hit the lever. Food poured down and the pigeon ate all the grains that had poured on the floor. Repeated Instantaneous actions of hitting the lever made the bird to form a close relationship between the action and the food lever which poured food any time when hit (Edward  Miller, 2004). Thus, the bird learned that anytime when hungry it could hit the electric food lever intentionally, and food would pour on the floor. The bird learnt to associate actions with experiences which follow them.  Thus, human beings apply the same principles developed by Skinner in learning and shaping behavior.
            Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which human behaviors are altered by nature of the consequences which succeed the action. Rewards and punishment occurring within the environment help in shaping and structuring human behavior (Kohn, 2001). According to Skinner, he devised four possible consequences of behavior which may occur or succeed actions.
a)  Positive Reinforcement - positive reinforcement promotes elicitation of positive behavior. If a person does something good, and he she is confronted with a positive response then that behavior is bound to recur. Positive reinforcement exists in the form of rewards and positive appraisals. Positive reinforcement forms the basic foundation for all conditioning (Roche, 2005).
(b) Negative reinforcement  this involves the removal of overt behaviors when an action has been performed through eliciting a bad consequence. Negative reinforcement occurs when an overt action is succeeded by a negative response. For example, when a child abuses another one in class and he she is ridiculed by others, the behavior is likely to decline and cease completely. Negative reinforcement is one of the very best methods of behavior modification which makes use of non violent means to correct overt actions.
c) Positive punishment -   Positive punishment includes presentation of a bad consequence immediately a response occurs. For instance in a family set up a child hits a brother the parents responds by spanking child (Roche, 2005).
d) Negative punishment  this entails the removal of good consequences or actions after a behavior has been elicited. For example, a child fails to drink tea in order to go to school and the mother refrains from dropping himher to school.
             Therefore, Skinner believed that given a child he can make it what you want it to be. Positive reinforcements can be used to shape behavior while negative punishment can be used to eliminate unwanted behavior. Vicarious learning is also possible and it occurs through watching and observing consequences of action performed by others. Therefore, behaviorists believe that human beings learn through environmental experiences. Environment can be structured to enhance or inhibit learning.  Learning occurs through pairing and association of events and experiences. Environmental reinforcements and rewards can be used to encourage or eliminate behavior.