Psychology

Operant conditioning is the mode of conditioning behaviors by use of consequences to modify the occurrence of a form of behavior. Majorly, operant conditioning involves the correction of behavior, which can also be termed as conditioning of behaviors. There exists two types of behavior conditioning there is the classical and the operant conditioning (Theodore, et al, 2005). Classical conditioning can be distinguished from operant conditioning in that, in operant conditioning, it involves modification of voluntary behavior, whereas classical conditioning deals with the conditioning of respondent behavior which is elicited by antecedent conditions. That is, behaviors conditioned by classical conditioning are not maintained by consequence, but those conditioned but operant, are maintained by consequence.

Operant conditioning was invented by B F. Skinner, who was a famous behaviorist. It is sometimes called instrumental conditioning and its particularly a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through this mechanism, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence. After discovery, it was believed that internal thoughts and motivations could not be used to explain behavior, but external observable causes of human behavior (Theodore, et al, 2005). The term operant refers to any active behavior that operates upon the environment to generate consequences.  Skinners theory explains how we acquire the range of learned behaviors that we come across each and every day of our lives. That is to say that, in each and every passing day, there are those behavior that we come across with, either from the people we interact with or the experiences that we are part of, when we analyze such behavior and imitate or rather start behaving as such, we will have undergone operant conditioning.

For instance, in our surroundings, we can notice employees working so hard in their different working sectors so that in the long run they can get rewards or even job promotions. Another instance can be seen when school students compete to work harder among themselves so that they emerge the best in the class works so that they can receive rewards from the teacher. In these examples, the individuals involved, most a time have this thought in their minds that there is a possibility of rewards. This will motivate them and it will therefore cause an increase in behavior (Theodore, et al, 2005). But in other cases, we can realize that the operant conditioning can be used to decrease the occurrence of behavior. The removal of an undesirable result or the use of punishment can lead to decrease and prevent undesirable behaviors. If an individual has some knowledge that doing or practicing some kind of behavior will land him or her into trouble, then the individual will not think of doing activities that will lead him or her to such effects. For instance, children may be told that they will lose rewards of even holiday privileges if they continue showing defiant characteristics in class. This possibility of punishment will make the children decrease in disruptive behaviors.

There exist components or rather procedures for operant conditioning. They are reinforcement, punishment and finally extinction. They all occur in the positive and negative senses. Naturally occurring consequences can also be said to reinforce, punish or extinguish behavior and are not always delivered by people. We can not of course argue that organisms are being reinforced, punished or extinguished rather, it is the response that is reinforced, punished or extinguished (Theodore, et al, 2005). More over, there is a concept of avoidance learning. It is a type of learning in which certain behavior results in the cessation of an aversive stimulus. For instance, performing the behavior of shielding ones eye when in the sunlight will help avoid the aversive stimulation of having light in ones eye.

To start with, reinforcement happens in two senses there is the negative reinforcement and the positive reinforcement. Positive reinforcement is when a behavior or rather a response is followed by a favorable stimulus that is commonly seen as pleasant, and thus increases the frequency of that behavior. Skinner conducted an experiment that he termed as Skinners Box, and from all that deductions he made, we are able to learn and apply the various components of operant conditioning.

For instance, a stimulus such as food or sugar solution can be delivered when the rat engages in a target behavior, such as pressing a lever (Theodore, et al, 2005).  Its evident that when an individual knows at the end of whatever he or she is doing there will be good results, his or her intensity of doing whatever he or she was doing will definitely increase. On the other hand, negative reinforcement is when a behavior response is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus that is commonly seen as unpleasant, thereby increasing that behaviors frequency. For instance, negative reinforcement can be a loud noise sounding from the rats cage continuously until it engages in the target behavior, such as pressing a lever, upon which the loud noise is removed. In both these cases, of reinforcement, the behavior is seen to increase.

We are able to conclude that, positive reinforcers are favorable events or outcomes that are presented after a behavior has been done and mostly in these situations that reflect positive reinforcement, a response or behavior is strengthened by the addition of something such as praise or direct award. On the other hand, negative reinforcers involve the removal of events that are not favorable or rather results after the exhibition of a behavior. In such situations a response can be strengthened by the removal of something that is seen unpleasant (Theodore, et al, 2005).

Punishment also exhibited in two senses, there is the negative punishment and the positive punishment. Positive punishment is the presentation of events that are not favorable or outcome in order to weaken the response that it follows. Negative punishment on the other hand occurs when a favorable event or outcome in order to weaken the response it follows. Its known as punishment by removal. In both cases of punishment, the behavior is seen to decrease.

According to Skinner box experiment, positive punishment when a behavior is followed by an aversive stimulus for instance introducing a shock to the organism in the Box experiment will lead to a decrease in behavior. While the negative punishment, occurs when a behavior is followed by removal of a favorable stimulus for instance taking away a childs toy being a result of a behavior that is undesired (Theodore, et al, 2005). This will definitely result to decrease in behavior.

Another concept is that of Extinction. This occurs when a response that had previously been reinforced in no longer effective. For instance, in the Skinner Box experiment, the rat is pushing the lever and in return it gets a reward of  food pellets several times, and then pushing the lever again and never getting the food pellets again, eventually the rat will stop pushing the lever.
 
Under the reinforcement sense, there is the delivery of reinforcing stimuli regardless of the organisms response. This is called, non contingent reinforcement. The idea here is that the target behavior decreases because it is no longer necessary to receive the reinforcement. This involves time-based delivery of stimuli identified as maintaining the response, which serves to decrease the rate of the target behavior.

Another concept brought forward by the operant conditioning theory is the concept of vicarious learning. Learning from watching the consequences of behavior. That is students in a class watch their colleagues go through a chain of punishments and refrain from deviant behavior in order to avoid going through the same experience as their colleagues (Theodore, et al, 2005).

Operant conditioning and the system of reinforcement both positive and negative  have been used widely in education to decrease the occurrence of overt behaviors and increase the elicitation of pleasurable behavior, like improving students performance in class and the like.