Psychology

    Humans are created in this world to serve a number of objectives and included in the list is their task to produce progenies in order to preserve the continuity of life and genetic traits, and to maintain the general equilibrium between and among living, non-living and inanimate objects that reside in this world today (Hamida, Mineka and Bailey, 1998).  Gender specific preferences in mate selection are the focus of many psychological and sociological studies that seek to answer the recurring question of how intrinsic behavior and traditional gender roles influence the lifelong mate selection decision making process (Feingold, 1992). Not just researchers, but the public too, is interested in explaining why the selection criteria differ between males and females because it is believed that these features are the main driving force that fuel diversity across all cultures covering all conditions.

    Available literatures agree that the females preference is strongly influenced by socio-economic status while males, on the other hand, place more emphasis on physical appearance, as compared to other observable female properties, and make it an important criterion in their selection process (Buss and Barnes, 1986). Evolutionary psychology explains these differences between human males and females with the parental investment model which states that women seek out potential partners by their ability to provide and protect while male tend to look for females who possess excellent reproductive properties (Eagly and Wood, 1999). The concept behind the mentality of females is in accordance to traditional societal gender roles which dictate that the lesser economic opportunities available today instruct females to seek for mates who are willing to and are able to provide financial support to her offspring and herself (Sprecher, Sullivan and Hatfield, 1994). In this sense, it can be inferred that women value financial stability of their future family as the main defining factor by which they will lay the grounds of their marital selection process (Sprecher, Sullivan and Hatfield, 1994). However, it is an accepted fact that that the ability by which a female can produce an offspring is described in a significantly shorter time span than that of a man, and thus, places the investment model as the main determinant of mate selection process in relation to the fact that the females will be subjected to the reproductive notion that will be associated to them by each and every male who can be their potential marital partner (Murstein, 1972). Therefore, women execute ways to increase their mate value by increasing their level of physical attractiveness to males which are evident in their trips to the salon, makeovers, shopping spree and many other ways which they believe are helpful in the improvement of their physical appearance (Murstein, 1972). Improvement of self worth, however, does not suggest that increased economic status of the female will also necessarily increase a females value in a males eyes (Hamida, Mineka and Bailey, 1998). The aforementioned statement is supported by the idea that men tend to assert the monetary domain in the family and often gets their ego hurt by the idea that women are earning more money for the family than what they actually obtain (Hamida, Mineka and Bailey, 1998).

    Males put high emphasis on selecting a mate with excellent domestic qualities (Johannesen-Schmidt and Eagly, 2002). However, the main focus of males is also related to their future offspring. Males look for females who they believe will be able to produce healthy offspring. Fertility is often identified with features such as facial attractiveness, youthfulness, and health. It can be deduced that the first feature is concerned with the potential physical properties of the future progenies while the second and third female properties, youthfulness and health, are manifestations of the perceived reproductive capability of the female based on her physical characteristics (Cunningham and Russell, 2004). Aside from health, age is another obvious determinant of the reproductive capacity of a female which can be reflected in certain physical features like smooth and clear skin, good muscle tone, lively gait, white teeth, and lustrous hair (Buss and Barnes, 1986). Furthermore, male preferences are influenced by body shape and symmetry (Cunningham and Russell, 2004). Buss (1989) states that traits suggesting reproductive capacity are seen as more desirable by males rather than females. Buss (1989) also found that the overwhelming majority of his samples, females, valued good financial prospect more highly than males. Although neither sex rated ambition and industriousness as low, this criterion was valued higher by females. The evidence supports that males value physical attractiveness more importantly even across cultures (Buss, 1989). The influences of negative characteristics displayed in a female have also been investigated. Males are more willing to accept negative character traits than females (Todosijevic, Ljubinkovic and Arancic 2003). Hence, it can be said that men value the physical beauty of their potential partners on a higher degree of assessment as compared to the importance that women tend to give to this property (Buss and Barnes, 1986).

    Social factors, like the desire to obtain the societys approval regarding of the mate choice has effects on determining the desirable qualities in a mate. For example, it is more socially acceptable for a male to be with a female who is physically attractive but without financial status and it is also more socially acceptable for a female to be with an unattractive male if the socioeconomic status is high (Feingold, 1992). These observations suggest the increased attributions that the society gives to accepted norms as basis of mate selection and acceptance of marital combinations (Feingold, 1992). Another practical example of this phenomenon is seen whenever people choose the type of dates that they will have and studies suggest that the aforementioned traits are so desirable that males are less likely to even date females that they do not find sufficiently attractive and, in the same manner, females are also less likely to date men who are of lower socioeconomic status regardless of their physical appearance (Townsend and Roberts, 1993). Consequently, it can be said that the physical feature plays a major role that one looks for in the assessment of a mates physical attractiveness (Buss, 1995). To further test this mental construct, the goal of this paper is to deduce an expository parameter in order to comprehend the differences between the sexes as revealed by the formulation of four hypotheses which are shown below. The hypotheses examined in this study are based largely on traditional gender roles.

Hypothesis 1 Female participants ratings of the ambition and industriousness item will be significantly higher than male participants ratings.
Hypothesis 2 Female participants ratings of the good financial prospect item will be significantly higher than male participants ratings.
Hypothesis 3 Male participants ratings of the good looks item will be significantly higher than female participants ratings.
Hypothesis 4 The mean Mon-Wed participants ratings across all conditions will not be significantly different than the mean Tues-Thur participants ratings across conditions.
Method   

Participants
     In order to properly analyze the gender specific mate selection procedures for both sexes, two groups of participants were recruited for the study. The participants were members of two undergraduate psychology courses at xxxxxxxx, in xxxxxxx, xxx. The study included a total of 75 participants where 30 are males and 45 are females. They ranged in age from 18 to 49, with a median age of 22.53, and a standard deviation of 5.82. It must be mentioned that the unequal distribution of the male-female participants is a function of the availability of the subjects and their granted consent to submit in the demands of the study. Furthermore, the diversity of age parameters is an important factor because they are likely to manifest and characterize the difference in preferences of the chosen population.   

Procedure
    The participants were assigned to two groups based on their last enrollment on Monday-Wednesday or Tuesday-Thursday. Participants were instructed to rate anonymously their personal opinion in choosing a lifelong mate. Male and female participants were administered the same questionnaires. Two unrelated questionnaires were also given at the same time. Participants were asked to rate three Likert items on a 10 point scale (1  not important, 10  very important). The three items included the character traits of ambition and industriousness, good financial prospect, and good looks. In addition to rating these items, participants were asked of their gender, class day and meeting time. The age was asked for statistical purposes, not for identification. There was no manipulation of the independent variable. Variables were measured based on participants ratings. It was attempted to increase randomization by utilizing data from two different classes. Participants were asked to rate without information regarding other participants answers or previously conducted studies. They were informed that the data would be used anonymously and for student research purposes only. Participants were also provided with an informed consent document beforehand.

    After having completed the abovementioned procedures, the validity of each hypothesis has been verified. In general, it has been determined that in relation to ambition and industriousness, female participants regarded such an aspect to be of greater significance or importance in contrast to the response derived from male participants. Despite such though, it is important to emphasize that the difference between mean values derived from male and female participants only differed by 1.3. Hence, it may be stated that ambition and industriousness mattered for both genders, albeit the fact that differences in the relative importance of such an aspect are of course observable. In addition to such findings pertaining to ambition and industriousness, the same trend in responses has also been noted for the good financial prospect criterion. To highlight such a point, it has been determined that female participants considered and responded to good financial prospect as a criterion of greater importance. Of course though, male participants still considered such a criterion to a degree.

    In contrast to the abovementioned criteria, which have been predominantly determined to be regarded and rated as higher among female participants, in terms of the good looks criterion it has been established that ratings derived from male participants were higher. It is vital to emphasize though that similar to previous criteria discussed the ratings provided by both male and female participants did not differ to a great extent. Besides such results, information pertaining to the differences among ratings among Monday  Wednesday participants and Tuesday  Thursday participants have been derived as well. To further expound, it has been established that throughout the responses derived from the aforementioned groups of participants, no significant differences may be observed. Given such, it may be appropriately stated that each hypothesis was confirmed and validated from such results. To further understand such and to emphasize upon numerical or statistical values, refer to table 2 below.

    Two groups of participants were recruited in the study which was named as Mon-Wed group and Tue-Thu group. These subjects are students of Psychology courses and the manner by which they were selected for the study involved a non-random method. Hence, it can be said that the non-random sample utilized in the study might have an impact on the integrity of the results obtained.

    Four hypotheses were tested in the study and the responses of the two groups of subjects are all in accordance to the pre-formulated hypotheses. This is despite the idea that the participants are less likely to answer honestly inside a classroom setting and that they are subjected to the pressures of traditional gender roles which can truly affect the gathered data. Furthermore, the non-rejection of the four hypotheses is a contradiction of the researchers fear that data relying on self-reports are not reliable because people do not always have an accurate view of them or tell the truth.

    In connection to hypothesis 1 and 2, female participants of this research study are seen to provide answers that are in accordance to the observed sociological frameworks that were investigated through time and were cited by scientific studies. The acceptability of the two hypotheses signifies the undeniable importance that the female subjects attribute to ambition industriousness, and good financial prospect of their potential male partners. In this case, common university experiences will portray a situation where in a female who is being pursued by two men will go for the guy who can satisfy more of the nonphysical characteristics that are likely to manifest the mans capability to provide greater financial stability to her and to their potential family (Feingold, 1992). These nonphysical characteristics which are related to the assessment of the kind monetary stability that can be provided by men to his future family include socioeconomic status, ambitiousness, character, and intelligence (Feingold, 1992). Sense of humor and personality were also discovered to be given with significant importance by both sexes regardless of the fact that these properties are not directly related to either reproductive investment or progeny survival (Feingold, 1992).

    The acceptance of hypothesis 3, on the other hand, suggests that the male participants really focus more on the physical features of the females which is also in congruence with the published scientific studies. Male participants of this study also prefer women with desirable physical properties. Moreover, the presumed self-rated attractiveness of a man is seen to relate to the type of date or marital partner that he is likely to have (Stroebe, Insko, Thompson and Layton, 1971). Those men who rated themselves as attractive are the ones who are likely to date women who are also attractive while men who rated themselves as unattractive are more likely to consider going out with ladies of physical characteristics which are not absolutely in accordance to the norms of the society (Stroebe, Insko, Thompson and Layton, 1971). This observation is also supported by the study of Murstein (1972) wherein he emphasized the importance of the stimulus-value-role theory which states that individuals are likely to choose dates or marital partners of comparable physical attractiveness.

    Lastly, the non-rejection of hypothesis number 4 confirms the notion that the mentioned gender specific mate selection strategies are practiced by the majority of the population across all cultures throughout the globe. The precision of the observed mean of the MonWed and TueThurs group is a reflection of the preservation of the sociological concepts that were mentioned in scientific literature with the expressed attributes by the college participants.            

    Buss  Barnes (1986) gave brief and concise explanations of the concepts that can be obtained from this study which include the notion that standards of female beauty are the subject of the scrutiny of mens eyes because they are believed to be the possible parameters of female reproductive capability. The correlation between male age and masculine reproductive capacity is not justifiable in most cases and thus, poses an alarm to the female population regarding the idea that they need to catch up with the reproductive investment that can be offered by their male counterpart, that men will prefer women who are within the age of reproductive capability, and that the women who are able to possess a mate with a high economic status are likely to have productive and successful progenies in the future.

The paper presents a theoretical and practical analysis of an interview with a care worker at language school. Language impairments in children after traumatic brain injury (TBI) are the central point of analysis. The principles and findings presented by the interviewee are positioned from an interactionist perspective, which shows language as the product of both biological and social development. The interviewee makes emphasis on the collaboration and communication between children and between them and older language professionals, turning communication and articulation in a form of challenge, which children have to meet in order to develop and maintain friendly ties with their peers.

    The loss of effective communication skills and the development of language impairments in children with traumatic brain injury (TBI) are not rare. Since the middle of the 20th century, the importance of language impairments in children following brain injury has been relatively low. On the one hand, researchers in neurology and language studies lacked a clear definition and a single integrated idea of how TBI in children and subsequent brain injury are linked. On the other hand, professionals in neurology also lacked a systemic methodology necessary to help children with brain injury restore their language function. In the current state of research, speech and language impairments and TBI in children are closely interlinked. Given the impact which language impairments in children with brain injury produce on the quality of their lives, numerous professional organizations were created to address the loss of communicative abilities in these groups of small patients. Despite the lack of a single theory or methodological approach, these organizations have proved to be en effective element on childrens way to full recovery and as a result, better quality of life.

    I CAN is an international organization based in UK and created to deal with children with various types of language impairments, including those that follow severe TBI ( Can, 2009). The organization was able to create a number of special schools for children with language impairments and has already achieved considerable success in treating even the most complicated language disorders in those, who had to experience the tragic consequences of brain injury. Mrs. Sheila Shanks, a care worker at Meath School kindly agreed to shed the light on the way language impairments are being treated in practice, as well as the ways language pathologists and teachers choose in their daily interactions with children following TBI.

    Mrs. Shankss official job title is that of a care worker, but her responsibilities and obligations usually stretch beyond what is required by her position. One reason for this is that she is bound to work with children, whose needs and behaviors change on a daily basis. Another reason is in that to be a care worker means to be responsive to everything that occurs in the working environment, to which Mrs. Shanks belongs as such her position requires increasing flexibility and openness. To be a child care worker at Meath School implies the need for Mrs. Shanks to help children as they arrive to the center, to help them find their tutor, and to organize their daily activities and schedules, but often Mrs. Shanks is directly involved in different learning and playing activities and thus becomes the direct participant of the major treatment process in children with language impairments. Having spent 5 years as a care worker at Meath School, Mrs. Shanks also occupied other positions with I CAN, beginning from a volunteer, through nursing, teaching and up to care work. With her Masters in Special Education she is likely to become one of the most experienced language therapists in the organization, but she is very satisfied with her present job.

    Mrs. Shanks cannot conceal her excitement when describing her present job. She is pleased to have a chance to work with children between 4 and 11 years and old and to help them restore their cognitive and language abilities. Her obligations require that she cares for children who come to Meath School during the day  from meeting them and helping them to find their class up to developing activities and schedules for children with language impairments and helping them with their home tasks. Her typical day begins at 8 a.m. A day of a typical care worker at Meath School starts with attending a regular meeting of the school staff, discussing previous achievements, daily plans, and problems. The number of language groups during the day may vary from 2 to 6, depending on the particular day of the week (during weekends, the number of children brought to school is usually higher compared to week days). Between groups, Mrs. Shanks participates in various team projects or works to develop various communication activities for children. She may deal with individual patients, who require her attention and help when working on their individual tasks. Mrs. Shankss day usually ends between 6 and 7 p.m., and a meeting with parents often becomes a logical end to her long work day.

    The children with whom Mrs. Shanks works have various types of language impairments, but the prevailing majority is caused by TBI, which is particularly painful and problematic in smaller patients. Expressive language disorder, articulation disorder, fluency disorders, and even dysphagia often become the objects of the increasing professional concern. According to Karunanayaka et al (2007), language problems in children following TBI may underlie observed problems in academic performance, social competence, and peer integration. Previous investigations have documented deficits in expressive and receptive language skills, naming ability, and written language (p. 356). Very often, children with TBI experience difficulties when trying to utter complex sentences or to transform or synthesize information (Karunanayaka et al, 2007), but Mrs. Shanks asserts that children with expressive language disorder are the most frequent attendants of Meath school. As a result, language professionals at I CAN have experience and knowledge necessary to deal with this type of language impairment in children but they do not lose the grip of control over other, possibly more complex and more dangerous language disorders.

It should be noted, that with the knowledge and experience about language disorders she currently possesses, Mrs. Shanks cannot but recognize the overtly diffuse nature of brain injuries in children and their impact on their cognitive functioning. Recently, Mrs. Shanks has become interested in the development of dysarthria as a form of speech disturbance in children following TBI. Although dysarthria is usually referred to a group of orthopedic disturbances in children, there is a direct link between it and TBI. Mrs. Shanks is confident that cognitive failures alone cannot explain the difficulties, which children after TBI experience while speaking. In this context, Mrs. Shanks supports the findings of Loh, Goozee and Murdoch (2005) who tie tongue and lip movement to the problems with brain functioning in children. Moreover, she views language development in children as the product of both biological and social processes, which positions her as the supporter of the interactionist perspective in language and learning. She is confident that only through continuous interaction with peers and professionals can children overcome their language difficulties. Mrs. Shanks has her own complicated vision of language impairments in children after TBI, and the activities and team initiatives which she develops are expected to cover both social elements of language impairments and the physiological (physical) difficulties, which children may experience because of their brain trauma.

    Needless to say, language impairments in children with whom Mrs. Shanks works or meets while fulfilling her job obligations impact the quality of their learning. On the one hand, they are not always able to express their thoughts and to form logical sentences on the other hand, because of their language disorder children often lose attention and fail to concentrate on the process of acquiring and processing new knowledge. Mrs. Shanks knows that the current state of research does recognize the link between the loss of attention and language impairments that follow TBI in children, but throughout her work she was also able to observe this link in practice. That attention is the critical element of successful learning is not a secret, but for Mrs. Shanks, the link between learning, attention, and language impairments forms a kind of a vicious circle while language impairments negatively impact attention in children and result in the loss of concentration, this loss of concentration and attention deficits slows down the progress in dealing with language impairments among children after TBI. This is exactly what Finneran, Francis and Leonard (2009) state in their research and this is also what has already become a reality for Mrs. Shanks. That is why cooperation with other language professionals, as well as the emphasis on the continuous communication and collaboration between children are the key to success in different groups of children coming to Meath School.

    As a care worker, Mrs. Shanks often possesses information about children, which may not be available, accessible, or known to other language professionals at school while occupational and language therapists deal with children during their lessons, a care giver is involved in broader interactions with children and their parents and can thus discover and identify language problems that may go unnoticed in the process of training. For this reason, Mrs. Shanks is often involved in creating reports about children and their progress in dealing with language impairments, especially expressive language disorder and aphasia. When asked about the contribution, which language professionals and care workers can do for children who experience language difficulties after TBI, Mrs. Shanks says that their school and their organization in general are critical for improving the quality of life in such children. Traditional schools fail to address specific needs of children with language disorders, while Meath School and its professionals provide a balance of support and challenge that encourages pupils to make progress in all areas of the curriculum (I CAN, 2009). For example, TBI in children is often associated with the loss of consciousness, and the duration of unconsciousness results in different degrees of axonal injury and cerebral concussion  health conditions that make treatment of language disorders in such children even more problematic (Murdoch, 1990). More importantly, Meath School provides conditions necessary to develop close friendly ties between children with similar language problems  as a result, they become open to each other and develop better language skills. The need for children to express themselves to their peers often becomes a form of a challenge, which they cannot meet unless they are able to articulate their thoughts and memories. As a result, speech therapists, occupational therapists, physical therapists, care workers and teachers altogether create an environment, which makes it possible to address these complications and to enhance the pace of learning in children after TBI  the processes which are difficult and even impossible at public schools.

    Mrs. Shanks is confident that continuous education and attention to research findings is the basic component of her professional success, and she recommends that other language professionals pay special attention to what researchers and scholars in neurological studies publish in professional journals. For example, with her emphasis and attention toward dysarthria, Mrs. Shanks became increasingly interested in how electropalatography may reduce the symptoms and signs of articulation impairments in children with post-traumatic brain injury (Morgan, Liegeois  Occomore, 2007). These scientific findings are further evaluated and adjusted to the practical environments, in which Mrs. Shanks cooperates with other professionals. Regular meetings with other professionals and continuous collaboration with related organizations all over the world often become the sources of interesting discoveries and findings, which specialists share and then use in their practical work. Certainly, Mrs. Shanks does not forget about the impact of culture on language impairments. She believes that language impairments in children after brain injury impact their ability to create macro and micro structures in language, but these structures also heavily depend on the culture-specific language patterns, which children and their parents and or caregivers use in daily environments. As a result, separating culture from language therapy is undesirable and even impossible, given the importance of language for childrens subsequent development and learning. However, the most important aspect of Mrs. Shankss professional success is the emphasis she makes on continuous communication between children in groups. In all her findings and discoveries, she intentionally or unintentionally reveals her respect of and commitment to the principles of collaborative learning, where children have an opportunity to communicate with each other and with older care workers and caregivers, thus acquiring more effective language skills and learning how to overcome their language difficulties in different situations.

    Interactionist perspectives in language development and acquisition show language as the product of both biological and social processes. As a result, interacting with peers and older care workers is critical in treating language impairments in children after TBI. Mrs. Shanks, a care worker from Meath School, is the direct support of the interactionist view of language in such children. She makes special emphasis on the need for children to interact with each other and with other adults. As a result, practical communication creates a form of challenge, which children are bound to meet in order to articulate their ideas and memories to other children. Although collaborative learning also poses some problems, and although not all parents can readily understand and accept the principles of shared knowledge and shared authority that are essential for collaborative language development, Meath School seems to have been able to overcome these difficulties through continuous communication with parents. I personally believe that the interactionist theory provides excellent opportunities for maintaining a reasonable balance of social, psychological, and biological factors of language development in children with language impairments following TBI.

According to O Neill (2005), governments define social conditions as social problems by spending money on them. (14). this has specifically been true when it comes to juvenile gang violence. However what has become clear over the course of several years is that gang violence is not a problem that you can simply throw money at and have it go away. There are specific ethical issues that must be addressed when attempting to help adolescents who are gang members to separate themselves from this negative lifestyle.

    The first ethical issue is that of integrity. As a specialist in juvenile gang violence you will need integrity, not only to avoid becoming involved with gang issues yourself, but, as a sign you can be trusted by the juveniles that you work with. Integrity will also be critical in terms of working hand in hand with the police and other social agencies that are helping to prevent juvenile gang violence because, it is often necessary for the psychological professional to act as an intermediary between law  enforcement and the client.

    A second ethical issue that will play a critical role is that of justice. While my main goal will be to help my clients escape the gang life, a secondary goal will be in preventing gang violence in order to provide justice to all of the families who have had their lives harmed by gangs, either because a family member is involved in gang violence, or because someone in the family has been harmed by gang violence.

    The third and perhaps, most important ethical principle that must guide by career is that of fidelity and responsibility. Fidelity is important because if I am not loyal to my clients and seek to serve their best interests, they will not learn to trust me, more than they trust their gang. Responsibility is also critical. As a counselor I have a responsibility to my clients, to protect them, to help them solve their problems and the help they develop the coping skills, and life skills that they will need in order to leave the gang, and to stop participating in gang violence. Each of these ethical principles will guide my choices throughout my career and help me to serve the interests of my clients to the best of my abilities.

Cognition and learning
     Cognition is the mental process of knowing something either through awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.  This is how somebody can claim to know something. Learning is closely linked with cognition. Learning can be said to be the process of acquiring new knowledge, skills, behaviors, values and understanding. (Brown et al, 1989).

    In psychology stroop effect is understood to be a demonstration of the reaction time of a particular task. This theory is named after its author John Ridley Stroop who first published it in English language 1935.

    According to the theory, it is easier to teach primary colors to schools children by naming the color  being learnt by  for example when teaching children color blue, it is important to write the word blue using the same color using a word printed in the same color. When a color is named using a different color for example when a word such as red is printed in color green learning the color take longer and is prone to mistakes than when it is named with the same color.( Brown et al, 1989)

    In the medical field the stroop effect have been found to be effective in testing selective attention so as to know whether a patient is suffering from brain damage or even detect brain diseases. This is done by asking the patient to name the color of an object painted a different color. For example a red cup but its name is printe3d in white. The patient is asked to name the color of the cup and also say the color of the letters used to print the name cup. The stroop effect has proved to be very effective in clinical functions.

    Similarly the stroop effect can also be used by policemen to test the attention of driver on the highways. This is can be done painting a card in a certain color and then writing the meaning of that color in traffic.  For example a red card written in green get ready to move. When a driver is asked to say the meaning of color red in traffic, it will take a longer time to process and those who have not mastered the meaning of traffic lights will be caught easily.

Descriptive and inferential statistics are the two most general types of statistics that are being used in researches and similar studies. Descriptive statistics are the type of statistics that provides the summaries of numeric data in an organized and straightforward manner (Levinson, 2002). Inferential statistics on the other hand, is the type of statistics that is uses a small set of data to come up with educated guess or inference about the larger set of data represented by the smaller data set (Levinson, 2002)

    Both statistics are often used in researches like criminal justice researchers, clinical researchers, and psychological and social researches. An example of application of descriptive statistics is on the computation of grades of students attending a particular class. Descriptive statistics may take the form of the average grade or the ranking of grades from the highest to the lowest, the total number of students with grades belonging to a particular range, or how often or frequent does a particular grade was incurred in the said class. So in its sense, descriptive statistics are used if you want to describe the characteristic of the population you are interested with.

    However, if you are to determine the future performance of the students in the said class, you are then deploying inferential statistics. Say if four out of five students will fair well in the midterm exam, then you can say that around eighty percent (80) of the students attending the said class will pass the final exam. Another example of inferential statistics is if you want to determine which of the boys and girls will perform well in the final exam.  Collecting a sample of boys and a sample of girls and determining the percentage of those passing in each gender will more or less give you an idea who will perform well and not during the final exam.

Human beings brain is indeed very powerful. A mindset of a person will always have a physical manifestation through its actions and behavior. So to speak, it is not what happens to a person but rather it is what heshe does with what happens to her. Therefore, a person invents hisher own life.

    Let us take the case of Mr. G, a married man working for a major corporation, who is presently seeking treatment due to his frustration and disappointment because he lost his promotion due to public speaking. He even thinks that the thought of public speaking makes him sick that he just wants to run away whenever he anticipates it. He even claims that he will be stuck in his current position forever. It is but apparent that Mr. G. is not happy with the recent happenings in his life. He is having a negative disposition in life.

This can be more explicitly understood with the Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) founded by Albert Ellis. This was formerly named as Rational Therapy which was later changed to Rational Emotive Therapy before it has been coined to its current appellation. According to this theory, a person does not merely get affected by unfavorable and unfortunate adversities, but by how they create their views and perspective of life with their language, beliefs, philosophies about them and others.

REBT makes us of the A-B-C (adversity-belief-consequences) model of psychological disturbance as well as change. This means that it is not just about adversity that results to dysfunctional behavioral Consequences, but also what a person believes about the adversity.

Taking the REBT in the scenario that we have with Mr. G, it is evident that with his negative views with what he is going through, this results to a destructive emotional and behavioral consequence.
Also, REBT makes use of framework concepts that humans have both innate rational (constructive) and irrational (destructive) propensity and leanings. People manifest emotional difficulties, whether consciously or unconsciously, such as self-blame, self-pity, clinical anger, hurt, guilt, shame, depression, and anxiety. And this is what Mr. G is going through and experiencing in the scenario presented above.

    According to this theory, there will be no other way to get better and stay better but by persistent work and continuous practice of searching for ones own irrational beliefs and actively deter these beliefs.

With REBT, an intervention can be created to help people like Mr. G. as this is after all adapted as an educational process in which the therapist teaches the patient on how to identify destructive beliefs and forcefully clash those beliefs.  The therapist can focus much on the emphasis that a person always has a choice on how to minimize such feelings of negativity towards unfortunate events of ones life.

The first step should be noted that Mr. G has to acknowledge the problems, accepts the emotional responsibility and most importantly, has the willingness and determination to help his self. To be more specific, the intervention which can be arranged to help Mr. G, is one in which we have to seek professional help from psychotherapists to help demonstrate Mr. G with the unconditional other-acceptance. The therapist shall understand Mr. Gs concerns and point of view and heshe shall work not just as a mere therapist but rather as a facilitator, teacher, and most importantly encourager.  The therapist and Mr. G shall together work in a structured and active-directive manner, working on a set of target problems and a set of therapeutic goals shall be established as well.

Consequently, Mr. G. is expected to learn to take a broad view on the insights of the relevant situations which happened in his life. The therapist shall then examine possible underlying beliefs and more deep perspective and schemes which may account for a possible variety of problematic emotions and behavior.

    Also, it is important that Mr. G should have the best social support that he could get from his wife, family, and friends to help him get out of this situation. Activities which focus on quality time with his loved ones could evidently help him to realize that there is indeed more to life. This could help him minimize the instances of focusing on thinking about the negative things that he has in mind.

All the attempts made by a person(s) to control the behavior of another through improper utilization of power using bonds of relationship, trust, and dependency aimed at making the victim helpless are termed as abuse. Men are widely known to be abusive towards women and children. There are several reasons that may lead to a man becoming a perpetrator of violence. Biological and historical factors may make a person to be violent (Stong, 2007). Past experiences from violent surroundings, demographic characteristics such as poor education, age, and financial strains, psychological and personality disorders and substance abuse are all factors that may make a person to be abusive. Violent relationships either from a family or from friends also tends to create abusive characters. The community where a person is living may also make himher to be violent if the circumstances are not conducive. These may either be circumstances like lack of employment, existence of illegal arms or high population density.  Societal norms may also develop violent people. Some societies believe that a woman can never be the head of a family and that children are not supposed to have any say in their families (Better health, 2009).

Violent men
There are different types of abuse that men can exhibit either towards women or children. These are physical abuse which includes hitting, beating, punching, slapping, pulling hair, mutilation, burning, biting, use of weapons and murder. The other one is sexual abuse which ranges from unwanted touches to rape. Verbal abuse is another type of abuse where a person uses derogatory words, threats, insults, and shouts at the other person. Psychological abuse is the case where intimacy, sympathy and emotional care are withdrawn from a relationship. Financial abuse occurs when someones money is stolen, withheld, or some one is restricted from acquiring information about household financial matters (Better health, 2009). The other form of abuse is spiritual abuse, where either a persons religious beliefs are belittled or the person is completely restricted from attending a religious gathering. A man can show one of these forms of abuse all exhibit al of them. Abusive men are very difficult to detect and they tend to make a woman think that she is not up to the standard. They also tend to put all the blame for everything that goes wrong in their lives on women. Abused women often portray depression and low self esteem (Better health, 2009).

According to Alexander (2009), in the beginning all relationships are very intimate and turn out to be abusive as time goes by. There are various signs that can be detected from an abusive man. One of them is that, they have a character of telling women that they will change and often pretend how much they love and care order to make a woman stick with them. They are also known to make a lot of empty promises. These men tend to become jealous over all other relationships a woman may be having be it at the workplace, family friends, and other family members. They tend to continuously accuse their women on cheating with other men.  They always inquire of a womans where about in an accusatory way.  Better health, 2009), notes that an abusive man tends to take control of all household business. This man also tends to believe that he is always on the right track and if anything is done contrary to his will, he becomes verbally or physically abusive. An abusive man also tends to blame anything that he does and goes wrong on a woman. An abusive man manipulates the thinking of a woman making her believe that, its her fault that he is abusive. They also make a woman think that they cant help being abusive, leaving the woman with nothing but feeling sorry for him. Abusive men have uncontrollable mood swings that range from offensive to remorseful and caring after they have abused a woman. The actions of an offensive man never match with his words. He is ford of making and breaking promises. Abusive men have no respect for a woman. They regard all women as a punching object to cool their tempers on. Considering the history of an abusive man he has very many cases of abuse either directed to a woman or an animal (Alexander, 2009).

Reasons why men become abusive

Biological factors
The major hormone that determines the character of man is testosterone. This hormone is believed to be a major contributing factor to the violence portrayed by men. Abusive nature of men occurs as a result of power inequity between them, women and children. The body structure of men is very different from that of women and children. They are more masculine and therefore tend to exercise that power against women (Stong, 2007),

Personality
There are some men who are hostile due to their personality type. Harway, ONeil, and Biden, (1999), states that these men are aggressive in nature and very little can be done to change their character. Abuse of drugs tends to further aggravate the abusive nature of these types of men. The situation is made worse when a person who is naturally aggressive is subjected to violent relationships either as a child or as an adult. Men who abuse often have low self esteem and feel powerless and useless and they tend to abuse others in order to prove their worth.

Social factors
These are the environmental factors that may lead to a man becoming abusive. Family structure, stress and social learning are some of the social factors that make men to be abusive. Constant violence directed towards children by their parents children especially the boy child tend to create a very aggressive person. Men who are reared in societies where illegal weapons such as gun are readily available tend to become very abusive when they grow (Welch, 2009).

The society also puts a lot of pressure to people who are not employed by requiring them to do things just the same way a financially stable person would do. As a result, a person subjected to that kind of pressure becomes very violent. Traditionally, many laws encouraged the battering of wives. It was seen as a form of instilling respect and discipline to a woman. The society may also view an aggressive person as a champion and treat him as such (Harway, ONeil, and Biden, 1999).

Family stress
According to Better health, (2009), families that are prone to pressures of all forms subject their members to psychological stresses. Some of these pressures include lack of finances to cater for basic family needs, too many family members and yet few facilities, accumulation of debts, and cases where one or both of the parents is very abusive.  As a way of responding to stress members become very abusive.  Families that thrive in poverty are at a higher risk of experiencing violence than families that are financially stable. Lack of Finances hinders a man from living up to his dreams of a successful life. As a result of fears that he may loose his credibility he turns out to be violent in search of honor and respect. All the abusive forms employed by this man are aimed at expressing his masculinity (Harway, ONeil, and Biden, 1999).

Social learning
Transforming Communities, (2009), states that people acquire most knowledge from observing what others are doing and copying them. Imitating a person whose moral character is upright generates a very nice person, whereas imitating a hostile person generates a hostile creature. Transmission of violence occurs from one generation to another through observation. Boys who are reared in communities full of abuse will most likely copy the behavior and direct it towards women later in life. Men also learn to be violent from their families, especially their abusive fathers and other violent male models. Welch (2009), states that violent social networks ranging from violent programs on television, violent movies to articles portraying violence against women tend to create a violent being out of a man. Few interventions have been taken to minimize the chances of a man becoming violent. The society tends s to blame the violent acts of abusive men on substances like alcohol and abuse of other drugs. This tends to give abusive men courage as they also blame their abusive nature on substances. Women are also not willing to report violent cases to the authority they do not want to suffer from public humiliation. Women also think that they will not get proper attention from a male dominated authority. When an abusive man realizes this it encourages him to continue with the evil acts (Transforming Communities, 2009).

However much the society tries to point an accusing finger towards abusive men, the vice is still rampant. Women should take precautionally measures in order to protect themselves and their children from violent relationships. By observing the actions of a man a woman can detect whether he is abusive or not, as abusive men are ford of telling empty promises. On detecting that a man is abusive, a woman should take the necessary steps by either seeking guidance and counseling or leaving that man as it is very hard for an abusive man to change his character. Women should also report any case of abuse towards them as violence can never stop if the victims are reluctant to report. After an abusers partner has left the abuser may tend to be remorseful crying for forgiveness. Women should be warned that if anyone goes back to such a character she should be prepared for more abuse.