Psychology

Ruscio argues that one of the main problems with the media is that news stories tend to be over-exaggerated for several reasons. First, media stories are exaggerated in order to gain advertising revenues. In fact, Ruscio argues that the media specifically picks certain stories that will be more likely to increase revenues, which means that mundane events or benign events are often ignored for disasters, national emergencies, and wars. Second, media stories tend to be exaggerated in the sense that only unusual occurrences and odd events are chosen for primetime news shows, and the importance of such events tend to be overblown to mass proportions. (Ruscio Chapter 1).

This is clearly seen in a 2004 study by Woo et al, which focuses upon the perceptions of parents whose children developed health problems after being vaccinated in comparison to parents whose children responded positively to being vaccinated, after the 2001 scare about vaccines potentially being one cause of Childhood Autism. In this study, Woo et al surveyed 124 parents who had reported their childs autism to the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System or VAERS between 1990, and 2004. According to Woo et al, these parents were less likely to see childhood diseases that had vaccines as being a serious issue, and were less likely to allow their children to have further vaccines, even if these illnesses were viewed as a problem.

One of the main reasons that these parents seem to have such an issue with vaccinating their children is the media outrage that occurred when a small number of autism cases were reported in the medical research as being correlated to higher risks of autism and other health problems. The other major factor that played a role in determining whether or not parents who had reported a childs health condition to VAERS sought further vaccinations for their children was the correlation between the appearance of the symptoms and the children receiving a vaccination.

It is clear that the media had powerful role in the parents who participated in this study. The actual correlational study in showing a link between autism and vaccinations had little statistical significance and was based upon a very small sample of subjects. Yet the media took the results of this study and immediately started proclaiming that vaccinations caused autism. It is clear that the newspapers and magazines that these parents were reading were not credible sources for several reasons. First, as the original study showed only a correlation and had limited generalizability there was no definitive link between autism and vaccination. Second, since the original sample was so small to begin with this could be seen as one example of the Medias tendency to over-exaggerate the unusual, or the tragic.

Woo et al.s study definitely demonstrates that the media has a strong influence on how people view events that occur in the world around them. The parents who participated in this study reported that they had read about the original study in the popular media. The same popular media that has become known for exaggerating their stories for financial and ratings gains which casts any story popularized by them in doubt,

It can be concluded, that the influence of the media is problematic when it comes to certain things. For instance, the role it takes in publicizing medical studies. Reporters take no care, and have little understanding of research reports, or the different types of experimental design, and only choose to publicize medical and psychological studies that are controversial, strange, or tragic in some way. The media is a problem for the medical and psychological fields because credible reports of important discoveries rarely get publicized whereas the controversial studies with little significance make headlines.

The research investigates the possible telesomatic experiences of 20 adult twins. The authors posit that the body can only exist in one exact spatial area with existing boundaries, which is the human skin, and these boundaries can be tested by performing examinations such as a physical assessment of utilizing technology eg. x-rays, CT scans. Moreover, the body relies heavily on its own six senses and not of others. However, telesomatic instances between twins have shown that they are able to know and feel what is happening to the inside of another twins body (Mann  Jaye, 2007). These and other evidence of telesomatic experiences prompted the researchers to investigate on the said phenomena.

Snowball sampling was utilized to find the 20 adult twin participants and 1 to 2 hours of structured interview was done and was recorded through an audiotape. The interviewer used a technique that lets the participants talk about their experiences with minimal interruptions from the interviewer, with particular use of the immersion-crystallization technique. Results showed that the correspondents reported 50 telesomatic experiences that occurred mostly during major life experiences such as pregnancy, childbirth, accidents, trauma, among many others. The experiences were categorized into three types. The first type is when a pregnant twin was already having labor contractions, astonishingly, the other twin, who isnt pregnant, felt the same contractions too (Mann  Jaye, 2007). Another type is when a twin was feeling negative emotions, and the other twin will feel anger or rage. The third type of telesomatic experience in twins is when one twin is feeling a symptom, for example, pain in a localized area, but the other twin is feeling constipated.

The researchers conclude that this phenomenon may be explained by utilizing pyschotheraphy and family therapy as the approach to understanding telesomatic expaeriences. In psychotherapy, it is posited that in order to understand emotional states one considers the experiences of another individual with whom this person shares a strong emphatic bond with, instead of focusing ones the experiences (Mann  Jaye, 2007). Family therapy, on the other hand, supposes that issues within the family that are of psychological and emotional nature of just one family member may be seen to manifest to the other members of the family (Mann  Jaye, 2007). The authors, being aware of the controversies suffered by parapsychological experiences, suggest that these experiences pose a dilemma in western scientific and medical views of telesomatic phenomenon and that this experience extend beyond the person to cover other individuals (Mann  Jaye, 2007).

Telesomatic experiences are basically felt when something that is not a part of the body is experienced to be a part of that person and is likened to what the Mixtec people of Central America calls as their coessential animal (Mann  Jaye, 2007). However, the authors do not claim that the telesomatic experience is real but instead they assert the growing evidence researched regarding this phenomena amidst the skeptics that contest the very evidence of researches like this. This prompts the researchers to clarify that what they believe in is that the experiences of the participants are real for these individuals and that they aim to delve into what the experiences mean and the implications of it (Mann  Jaye, 2007).

To present an account about a particular personal development associated with my life was difficult task for me. I have been involved in various tremendous and exciting experiences (both exclusively personal and sometimes along with others) that it became difficult which of these I will chose to write on. My experiences vary in nature and composition from the worst to the best times in my life and these make them very remarkable indeed. Besides, the fact that I have found myself doing studies in psychology made these experiences more remarkable. I could look back at my past and even use a number of the theories I have learnt so far to explain and rationalize many of the issues I have had to face and my attitudes at that time.
One of the experiences that is still very vivid in my memory in that of nurturing my first child, this being my first experience at parenting. I could still remember the way my child grew, my contributions, the way I feel and my attitudes at this time. It is even more exciting analyzing this experience using Eriksons psychosexual theory and Piagets Cognitive theory.

There are a lot of similarities as well as differences in these theories and, in using these theories, I discovered more similarities and differences in my actual life experience and what these theories present. I would like to discuss these in this reflective essay. In order to give an in depth description of my childs psychological development and my parenting role, I might have to briefly talk certain aspects of my life starting right from the beginning of my life. I was born and bought up in Pakistan a liberal country. Then, at the age of sixteen, I got married and moved to Saudi Arabia (a male dominative country) with my husband. After fifteen years in Saudi, I moved to Australia. The fact that I have spent my life in three different countries so far gives me a wide range of exposure in personal and psychological development. All these experiences have contributed towards my own psychological and personal development. This, in turn, I believe has an influence on my contribution, as a parent, in my childs growth. Thus, my own psychological development and personality is one of the influencing factor also in my childs growth.

This development of my child as discussed in this essay is analyzed based on the eight stages of human development theory developed by the psychiatrist, Erik Erikson and on Piagets Cognitive theory. According to Piaget, as an individual interacts with his world from birth on, he constructs his mental representations of the world he interacts with based on his experiences and interaction (Olson, 1996). This ongoing process is called adaptation. By this, it means that an individual resorts to his mental representations of his world to interpret issues he is faced with currently. These mental representation are however, based on his previous experience with his world. Piaget highlighted that mans cognitive development consists of four distinct stages. These are sensor motor stage, preoperational stage, concrete stage and formal stage (Piaget, 1950). Erikson, on the other hand, presented his theory of mans psychosocial development. He explained that mans growth and change is an eight-stage development with the stages being interrelated. The development is also such that one stage overlaps into the next and this spans through mans entire life cycle (Erikson, 1950 Erikson, 1959). Furthermore, Eriksons theory focuses the social interactions and conflicts associated with each of the eight stages of an individuals development.

The similarity between these two theories is that they both tend to provide explanations for human development. However, there are differences in the way they presented their theories. One of the major differences is that Piagets theory explains for the development of man until the stage of puberty. However, the stages of development presented by Erickson spans more than this period of puberty. While Erikson believes that there are eight stages that represent different periods in a childs development (Erikson, 1998), Piaget tend to create a concept that explains the reasoning behind the behaviour of a child at each stage of his development. Piaget is of the opinion that mans present view of his world is actually based on his interaction and experiences with that world. A change in his views thus arises as a result of the change in his interaction with his world (Satterly, 1987).

Another interesting difference in the two theories concerns whether people must go through all of the postulated developmental stages. In Eriksons model, if a person lives long enough, he will face each of the developmental crises. This person may or may not resolve these crises but he will pass through it at the given time (Erikson, 1998). This is not the case with the Piagets theory. It maintained that all individual would of necessity experience each of the four developmental stages he presented with no certainty that all will achieve final maturation (Wood, 1998). In Eriksons model, each of the eight stages of development describes different periods of mans development and the interactions and conflicts that are peculiar to each stage. He emphasized that these interactions and conflicts influences each persons personality and behaviour. However, if an individual fails to completely undergo any of the stages, there are consequences to follow. These mostly come as complications for the subject, later in life (Erikson, 1998).

In light of the above theories, I would now like to discuss my experience of having my first child.  At the initial stages, I was wondering what to expect as my child develops. I was then living in Saudi Arabia, a country where male dominion is more pronounced. Erikson looks at the society as a means through which a childs initial growth and development can be influenced and modelled. Even religion, an institution that the society created, plays a major role. This was my main concern as a parent. I was conscious of the fact that I am about to raise a child in an environment where the government creates its own laws of religion and forces them upon the residents of its country.

Even though I was born in a Muslim family and I did practice this religion at that time, it was still a huge struggle to understand what the role of the government was as far as the religious affairs of the country are concerned. Hence, my first concern was to ensure that this scenario does not create a situation where the child feels uncomfortable with the supposed religious imposition by the government. This is likely to instil a sense of mistrust on the child and this may lead to a personal uncomfortable feeling in that the child does not have the option of choice when it comes to religion. In the light of Eriksons first developmental change, my fear actually is that my child might tend to start viewing constituted authorities (including my own authority as a parent) with no level of trust. This may not create a positive first stage for my child. He may tend to come out of this stage with no trust for instructions and knowledge especially when it comes from a higher position in hierarchy. Piagets theory explains that a child continually forms an interpretation of his world as he continually encounters new knowledge and experience in interacting with his environment (Piaget, 1967). So, inspite of the fact that the environment was imposing when it comes to religious affinity, I had to create for my child an environment where mistrust will not set in. Though it took me the effort of manipulating my childs environment, I knew that it was for his own benefit and in order to create a positive psychological development for him. I was trying to keep a balanced home environment as otherwise the scenario could be tipped way over on a side where mistrust would later set in for my child. Erikson is of the opinion that mistrust is presented as inclinations to display certain attitudes and characters such as withdrawal, depression, delusion, suspicion and unrealistic reasons to distrust (Erikson, 1998). However, with a properly balanced environment a more positive development can be achieved for the child. At home, we also had to play our parts as parents. With the help of my husband and a few other family friends, we decided that we must advance our learning about Islam in order to be able to distinguish right from wrong.

Then, we would be able to create an environment for our children and teach them the correct way of thinking. It is not just the religion we were trying to learn. Rather, we were more concerned with the teachings about the principles of life presented in the religion. Instead of focusing on the imposition of the religion by the government, we were more conscious to make the children see the good teachings on the principles for living that the religion has to offer. I did not want my child to be lost or get the wrong impression of Islam or that about the principles of life from the surrounding he was living in. In this regard, we organized classes for young kids every Friday to teach about the tenets of the religion. This in essence helped in developing the right moral value. I understand that the acquisition the right moral teachings as applied to the way of living and societal interaction is one of the major things my child had to learn (Allen and Marotz, 2000).

My child started school at the age of 3 years also in Saudi Arabia. I sent him to a private multicultural environment type of school till the age of seven. I was careful to choose this school to be sure that the environment will enhance the acquisition of the necessary cognitive, affective and psychomotor skills for my child (Huitt  Hummel, 2003). I could say I was not disappointed on the long run. In fact, most of the kids in that school were of parents who had similar concerns as I do. If these parents (who were looking for a place similar to that which I was looking for) could bring their wards to a place like this, I was more convinced that I had made the right choice.  When my child turned eight, I decided to send him to a different school for his elementary education bearing in mind the views of Erikson that the nature and character of the elementary school impacts greatly on the development of self-confidence for the child. Thus, I had to be selective in my choice of schools. Eventually, I decided to send him to an International Embassy School in Jeddah. If I had sent him to a Saudi Arabian school instead, I guessed he would have been acquired a limited or dented view on different aspects of life (especially religion and politics). A person does not have freedom of speech in such a country as Saudi Arabia whereas in the school I sent my child, the tendency is high that he will develop a free mind and a way of reasoning on any issue in life.The adolescent stage is considered a difficult time of life and one in which a number of changes occur as the individual grows in various aspects of his personality. Some theorists, such as Piaget, were concerned about the adolescent stage, seeing the stage as the period of transition between childhood and adulthood. Another category (to which Erikson belonged) are of the view that the transition stage is not only limited to the adolescent stage. Rather, the whole life cycle of an individual consists of eight stages and each of the stages transits into the next in a continuous manner (Flavell, 1996). However, both Piaget and Erickson agreed that the stage of adolescence is a major stage in a childs development in that it leads in transition to adulthood (Flavell, 1996).

In addition, Erikson referred to the adolescent stage as the fifth stage in his 8-stage model. Successful developing through this stage earns the individual the acquisition of the fidelity virtue (Erikson, 1959 Erikson, 1968). In explaining this, he referred to fidelity as being loyal especially to the society that one has found himself irrespective of the shortcomings attributable to such a society. With this knowledge, I saw the need for my child to successfully pass through the adolescent stage. He has learnt to create a level of trust for his society as suggested by the first stage of Eriksons model. I was sure his adolescent stage is now the time for him to imbibe the attitude of loyalty for his society despite any imperfections that he may observe as peculiar to that society. The loyal skill that anyone can notice in my son today stems more from my understanding of Eriksons theory and my effort at working on its realization in my sons life. This was really a hard work for me but the end definitely justifies the means.

At the adolescent stage of my child, we got a chance to migrate to Australia (then my child turned thirteen). This further caused more difficulties for my child. He had to cope with changes in culture, language and a very different environment. It was difficult for him to express himself. To help him a little, I had to put him in an Islamic school (to provide an environment familiar to that which he is coming from, at least) instead of a public school. However, I must say that it was very challenging to be able to fit into a very different environment especially at that age. In the views of Piaget mans cognitive development stages could be regarded as orderly and highly predictable. Armed with this, I was more confident that I would be able to help my child through his growth especially during the adolescent period. Since growth and development in attitudes and characters are predictable, it was easy to prepare in anticipation of the changes that came about in my child. My goal actually was to help my child to be able to confidently deal with the issues and challenges of any stage of his life. I was very successful at this. Thanks to the depth of my understanding of the propositions of the theorists I have used.

Today, the end result of my efforts was a child that is versed and well developed in all the aspects of development as suggested by Piaget (cognitive, affective and psychomotor). Educationally, he has been the best in his fields of academic endeavour. In addition, his contributions to the society at large are laudable. Thanks to the theories of Piaget and Erikson.Looking back at what I have done over the years and the level of development that my son has achieved, I could submit that the that experiences in life, the changes one goes through, achievements gained, the influence of child rearing, societal changes and culture all have a really important role on human development. Eriksons psychosocial crisis life cycle model - the eight stages of human development model of psychosocial development is a very significant, highly regarded and meaningful concept. Life is a series of lessons and challenges, which help us, grow. Eriksons wonderful theory helps us in understanding a childs development into adulthood. Moreover, Piaget propositions ensure that a child is developed in a more balanced way. Cognitive development only does not make for full development. Total development is more robust and encompassing than this. This understanding has also been very instrumental to my success as a parent.

What is Bobs attitude according to Jungian theory Provide evidence for your answer.

Jung explained that the movement of the libido or life force which, makes an individual to move towards pleasurable thoughts and behavior, determines the persons attitude. The persons orientation towards the world could either be described as extraversion or introversion. If the libido moves towards the external world, then the persons attitude is an extrovert. On the contrary, if the libido moves towards the psyche or the self, then the persons attitude is introverted. Extrovert attitude is described as being adventurous, outgoing, and adaptable to situation changes. Extroverts are motivated by what is happening in their environment or society and the people that surrounds them. This differs significantly from having an introvert attitude, which displays shyness and interest on ones own feelings and ideas. They are responsive to images and impressions. With these in mind, Bobs attitude according to Jungian theory would represent the introverted attitude. This could be reflected upon the interests that Bob was showing. He was motivated by his  experiences regarding visions about the future, the past and peoples aura. He was consumed with the idea that he was helping people solve their spiritual problems. As evidence, he was described as an impractical and a messy person. It was noted that he experiences trouble in managing his daily task. This reflects his inability to be in touch or focus on the things around him. He could not even keep track of his money or buy foods for himself. The interactions that he enjoyed including his beliefs and experiences about the other world. Although Bob is not a loner and display no shyness, as most introverts do, he has the tendency to draw people towards himself and to live in the mystical world instead of living in the present reality. These are clearly the implication of an introverted attitude that was described by Jung.

What is Bobs superior function according to Jungian theory Provide evidence for your answer.
Carl Jung identified four different functions involved in the apprehension of the stimuli including sensing, thinking, feeling and intuiting. Thinking is the opposite of feeling and is known as the rational function. On the other hand, sensing is the opposite of intuiting, which serves irrational functions. Upon the process of perception, the irrational functions are used. Sensing is basically knowing what things are presentabsent through the use of sense-experience. Sensing involves the direct observation of the reality. On the other hand, intuiting is about creating hunches or insights based on past experiences and ideas. In the assessment of the world, the individual makes use of the rational functions. In thinking, the individual logically evaluates the things that he perceives. It involves the interpretation and understanding of the object of perception. Feeling, is a more personalized evaluation of the perception, considering  the benefits and desirability of the perceived. According to the Jungian theory, a person could make use of all the functions described nonetheless, the individuals personality is determined by the superior function he possessed. In Bobs case, the superior function would be intuiting. This is based upon the fact that his work is about the mystical future and the other world. He perceived things and information through his hunches and guesses as could be reflected on how he proved his psychic abilities. According to him, he could always guess the time when his father goes back from work when he was a kid. His mystical skills are not grounded on reality but on his insights alone. For example, when he was asked to talk to the deceased, he talked or communicate to them in a spiritual level. The senses were only used when he asked for an object that the deceased had touched. The evaluations he made about the deceased were neither logical nor based on personal preference but merely based on guessing or an instinctive insight.

What are archetypes In what level of consciousness are they contained, according to Jungs theory Has Bob been influenced by any of the archetypes in the text Provide evidence for your answer. If so, how does it influence his behavior Jungian theory is largely dominated by the idea regarding archetypes. These are images of universal experiences. These archetypes are contained in the deepest level of the consciousness, known as the collective unconscious. The collective unconscious contains the accumulation of inherited dispositions and experiences regarding how to respond to the world based on universal and repeated humans and pre-humans experiences.

Jungs theory described several examples of archetypes, but most predominantly, four general archetypes exist in the human psyche. First is the persona or the mask. It is a public image that the person presents to the world. Second is the anima-animus archetype. Jung believes that humans, generally has both male and female aspects in hisher psyche. The male aspect is called anima while the female is known as the animus. Thirdly, humans tend to have a shadow archetype. This consists of what humans currently rendered as their dark sides reflecting the primitive animal instincts. Lastly, Jung included the self archetype which represents the unity or harmony of the total personality. Some other prominent archetypes are the mother, father, child, hero, God, and death archetypes.

Among the archetypes that were discussed above, the most prevalent archetypes that influenced Bob were the persona, God and death archetypes. The persona archetypes denote his outside representation of himself as a psychic or a mystic. As a psychic, he covered up his seizures as mystical manifestations of his abilities, despite the knowledge that he was experiencing a certain type of illness. He did not want to acknowledge this fact and therefore, chose to believe that it was not a problem at all. The archetypes of God and death predominates his belief in the paranormal and the other world. The contemplation regarding death before his 40th birthday reconnected him with the archetypes regarding the notions of God, spirits and death.

At what stage is Bob presently, according to Jungian theory What types of events should he be experiencing at this stage Is there evidence for these experiences in the case study Explain.

According to the case study, Bob is a 56-year-old fortuneteller. In reference to Jungs developmental stages, Bob is currently in the middle age stage. During the middle age, Jung argued that the personality is already established in the society. The individual is caught between youth and old age. The middle age stage is a transition wherein the person changes his interests. This involves a shift from material and sexual interests that dominates the youthful years into the consideration of cultural religious values. It is during this period that individuals try to reevaluate their spiritual and supernatural beliefs, specifically contemplations regarding death and the after-life. Jungian theory asserts that the middle age starts between 35-40. In the context of Bobs experience, it could be associated with the incident prior to his 40th birthday wherein he found himself contemplating about death and reading paranormal texts upon the discovery that he has simple absence seizures. Jung specified that the focus of interest during this period shift from external to internal to balance the conscious with the unconscious. The act of balancing could be reflected on the manner in which Bob chose to become involved with the paranormal. His spiritual orientation becomes mystical. His interests about developing his paranormal capability heightened and created a change in his lifestyle and perspective.

This interest was hindered by his youth wherein his attention and interest were focused on his career and family. Bobs interpretation of his sickness was also spiritual that he even disregarded the prescriptions that his doctor gave him. He believes that the seizures are not because he is sick, but because he has some connection with the mystical forces.

Eric Fromm is a psychology theorist who sought to explain human nature in relation to the notion of freedom. Drawing from Freud and Marxs points of view, Fromm analyzed mans personality not only as a biological entity but also as a societal character. This paper seeks to analyze a case study which depicts Fromms personality theory. The paper will describe the present case scenarios in respect to Fromms perspectives on freedom.

1.
According to Fromm, Marla and her mother exhibit a symbiotic family pattern. This sort of pattern is seen in families where individuals are not capable of developing their own personalities and instead are assimilated by others within their families. This results in a dependant relationship which is often a reflection of what the dominant family member wants or desires. In respect to the case study, this pattern can be seen in the relationship between Marla and her mother. Marla has no individual personality and her life revolves around making her mother happy. Initially a favorite child to her mother, Marla has since then made it her lifes purpose to serve her mother and do everything according to her. Another characteristic which can be observed from their relationship is how Marla relies on her mother to make decisions for her and even when she makes them it is only to include her mother in the process. When she is invited for a trip by Andrea, she cannot afford to live her mother behind and suggests that the mother joins them on the trip.  This relationship has led to the isolation of other family members like Marlas sister Andrea.

Fromm attributes this patterns occurrence to the societal characteristics which have often defined the roles and places individuals are meant to have in the society. In traditional societies, young girls grow up attached to their mothers who are representative of an ideal societal figure. These girls want to be associated with their mothers and often go to great lengths to please them. As a result, the young girls grow up in an environment which does not value the people that they are and this bars them from developing individual personalities. Fromm asserts in (Boeree, 2006), that freedom is quite complex and not all people are capable of taking responsibility for this freedom. This explains why symbiotic family patterns may occur. Some individuals unable to deal with their freedom cling on to others whom they trust to take responsibility.

2.
According to Fromms theory, the receptive orientation best describes Marlas personality. This personality manifests mostly in individuals in symbiotic family patterns. The submissive partner in the relationship expects to have their needs fulfilled by elements from outside themselves. Marla is not only submissive to her mother but she also expects the mother to hold all the answers to her questions, to make decisions on her behalf and to satisfy all her needs. At the mercy of her mother, Marla never seeks to fulfill her needs from within her being because she trusts her mother to be the ultimate provider. These sorts of personalities are found especially in low class societies where the people are dependent on the upper class to provide for them.

3.
Fromm outlines various existential needs which must be met for life fulfillment. The existential needs which have been met for Marla are relatedness and rootedness. On the other hand, the unmet needs are those of creativity, need for sense of identity and frame of orientation. Relatedness refers to the human desire to be linked to another person. This union allows individuals to overcome the separateness which naturally exists amongst human beings. Often illustrated as love, the need for relatedness can only be love when the individuals involved do not lose their individuality but instead maintain its integrity. Marlas need for relatedness has been met but in an unhealthy manner. Fromm accounts for such scenarios by explaining that this need for relatedness can exhibit ones desperateness to acquire it. Thus persons are prompted to find easier ways of establishing such relationships. Marla shares a strong bond with her mother. She relies on her mother for her wants and also takes cues from her on the right decisions to make in her life. In the true sense, Marlas need for relatedness has only been met partially as it has not resulted in a healthy relationship.

The existential need for rootedness emanates from the basic human desire to belong. This need is only fulfilled when individuals find a home where they feel that they truly belong. Marlas need for rootedness has been met but has also resulted in an unhealthy development. Fromm claims that the easiest way for human beings to gain rootedness is to maintain their links with their mothers. Marla remains close to her mother and feels safe and protected under the mothers care. However, instead of establishing other roots as an adult Marla still remains tied to her mother. Marlas is thus clinging to the only roots which she feels she has and this can be seen in the way she isolates herself from others and will only relate to her mother.

Marla has not developed a sense of identity mainly because she has sought to escape from her freedom by being dependent on her mother. Her life is not under her control but her mothers and this has led to her deformed personality. Fromm states that peoples need for identity can be quite overwhelming and they may be forced to conform to other peoples status in order to establish their own niche. Marla has a pretend sense of identity as it is not truly hers but it is a reflection of her mothers individuality. Also, Marlas need for creativity is unmet because she has not yet formed her own family and has no children. This is one of the many ways that human beings seek to transcend. Marla has not yet experienced this because she has not adapted to an individual identity which would allow her to seek outside relations which would prompt the desire for children. Her symbiotic relationship with her mother is the greatest barrier to the fulfillment of the need for creativity.

Another unmet need is the existential need for a frame of orientation. This is the need to develop an understanding of the world and life in general. Moreover, this understanding must be rational and one which provides individuals with meaning. Fromm relays that an individuals desperateness to seek meaning in life may lead them to accepting false rationalizations as the truth. Marla does not possess any affiliations which would assist her in understanding life since she is always attached to her mother. In addition, her unhealthy relationship with her mother lives no room for her mother to help her develop an understanding of the world.

4.
Marla has adopted the authoritarianism mechanism in order to escape from freedom. This mechanism allows individuals to blend with others in a hierarchical authoritarian system. Marla has submitted to her mothers authority by conforming to the mothers way of life. She is dependent on her mother and Marla has identified with her structural providence.  In playing the parental role, Marlas mother establishes rules for her daughter and sees to it that they are followed. On the other hand, Marla has learnt to submit to her mothers wishes and will make sure she follows the rules to the letter. Apart from this passive mechanism, Fromm also notes that there is an extreme side o the authoritarian mechanism. This is the masochistic version where individuals assert their structures to others as a way of escaping their individual identities.

From the above analysis, it is evident that the paper has provided an illustrative evaluation of Fromms personality theory. Marla, the main subject of the case study provides a suitable example in describing Fromms depiction of freedom. Emerging form a symbiotic family, Marla has no individual identity and uses the authoritarianism mechanism in order to escape from her identity. Fromms existential needs have also been outlined with the conclusion that only the needs for relatedness and rootedness have been satisfied in Marlas case. Furthermore, Marla has been described as having a receptive orientation personality. This has been derived from her characteristic of being dependent on her mother for the fulfillment of her needs and wants.

The essay Defending Against the Indefensible contains several different ideas all of which, I do not think the writer intended. And though I agree with most of the observations made in the essay I would like to discuss two points, which, presumably, were unintended by the author. The fist is setting up education and reform as a type of war where as the second is the (again presumably)unconscious Christian subtext. These two ideas could lead one to believe, that the author sees educational reform as some type of Christian crusade. In the following I will look into these ideas in more detail.

The title Defending against the Indefensible is itself a theme maker. By using words like defense, protection, and countless others, the idea, that war can be used as a metaphor for  educational reform is made most apparent. Additionally, in his seven points, the inclusion of the answer we should send Marines to Nicaragua though, anachronistic, too helps set the back drop that war as a metaphor and educational reform can be confused.
   
As for a Christian bias, this is apparent through out the essay however, it is made most notable in the choice of quotes it is unfit for a Christian ear to endure this, along with gods sake and other allusions such as the joke about the two priests, the Christian bias is most pronounced and obvious. I would think, if this had been written in a culture that was not predominantly Christian, the use of such language would seem odd and out of place, however, I think to the unobservant, the use of these easy anecdotes could easily go by unnoticed.

The previous two ideas do not necessarily reflect my opinion, but, inform by opinion in the sense, that I agree with his general statements and could not find fault with any of them. It is true, that definitions are too often used as the end of authority, rather than the starting point. As a society, we rely on these intellectual short-cuts, as a means of not having to think. For the most part, schools in general, and the United States in particular, are really nothing more than indoctrination centers.  Day in and day out, they produce good little citizens, that understand the top-down modals of life and economics, never questioning, their brothers plight, nor that of their own sad dreary existence. However, to conclude with  a slightly happier note, I found the line metaphors like questions, are organs of perception really quite funny. Here he is using the language of simile, to talk about metaphor, which if anything, further makes his point.

Eric Fromm is a psychology theorist who sought to explain human nature in relation to the notion of freedom. Drawing from Freud and Marxs points of view, Fromm analyzed mans personality not only as a biological entity but also as a societal character. This paper seeks to analyze a case study which depicts Fromms personality theory. The paper will describe the present case scenarios in respect to Fromms perspectives on freedom.

1.
According to Fromm, Marla and her mother exhibit a symbiotic family pattern. This sort of pattern is seen in families where individuals are not capable of developing their own personalities and instead are assimilated by others within their families. This results in a dependant relationship which is often a reflection of what the dominant family member wants or desires. In respect to the case study, this pattern can be seen in the relationship between Marla and her mother. Marla has no individual personality and her life revolves around making her mother happy. Initially a favorite child to her mother, Marla has since then made it her lifes purpose to serve her mother and do everything according to her. Another characteristic which can be observed from their relationship is how Marla relies on her mother to make decisions for her and even when she makes them it is only to include her mother in the process. When she is invited for a trip by Andrea, she cannot afford to live her mother behind and suggests that the mother joins them on the trip.  This relationship has led to the isolation of other family members like Marlas sister Andrea.

Fromm attributes this patterns occurrence to the societal characteristics which have often defined the roles and places individuals are meant to have in the society. In traditional societies, young girls grow up attached to their mothers who are representative of an ideal societal figure. These girls want to be associated with their mothers and often go to great lengths to please them. As a result, the young girls grow up in an environment which does not value the people that they are and this bars them from developing individual personalities. Fromm asserts in (Boeree, 2006), that freedom is quite complex and not all people are capable of taking responsibility for this freedom. This explains why symbiotic family patterns may occur. Some individuals unable to deal with their freedom cling on to others whom they trust to take responsibility.

2.
According to Fromms theory, the receptive orientation best describes Marlas personality. This personality manifests mostly in individuals in symbiotic family patterns. The submissive partner in the relationship expects to have their needs fulfilled by elements from outside themselves. Marla is not only submissive to her mother but she also expects the mother to hold all the answers to her questions, to make decisions on her behalf and to satisfy all her needs. At the mercy of her mother, Marla never seeks to fulfill her needs from within her being because she trusts her mother to be the ultimate provider. These sorts of personalities are found especially in low class societies where the people are dependent on the upper class to provide for them.

3.
Fromm outlines various existential needs which must be met for life fulfillment. The existential needs which have been met for Marla are relatedness and rootedness. On the other hand, the unmet needs are those of creativity, need for sense of identity and frame of orientation. Relatedness refers to the human desire to be linked to another person. This union allows individuals to overcome the separateness which naturally exists amongst human beings. Often illustrated as love, the need for relatedness can only be love when the individuals involved do not lose their individuality but instead maintain its integrity. Marlas need for relatedness has been met but in an unhealthy manner. Fromm accounts for such scenarios by explaining that this need for relatedness can exhibit ones desperateness to acquire it. Thus persons are prompted to find easier ways of establishing such relationships. Marla shares a strong bond with her mother. She relies on her mother for her wants and also takes cues from her on the right decisions to make in her life. In the true sense, Marlas need for relatedness has only been met partially as it has not resulted in a healthy relationship.

The existential need for rootedness emanates from the basic human desire to belong. This need is only fulfilled when individuals find a home where they feel that they truly belong. Marlas need for rootedness has been met but has also resulted in an unhealthy development. Fromm claims that the easiest way for human beings to gain rootedness is to maintain their links with their mothers. Marla remains close to her mother and feels safe and protected under the mothers care. However, instead of establishing other roots as an adult Marla still remains tied to her mother. Marlas is thus clinging to the only roots which she feels she has and this can be seen in the way she isolates herself from others and will only relate to her mother.

Marla has not developed a sense of identity mainly because she has sought to escape from her freedom by being dependent on her mother. Her life is not under her control but her mothers and this has led to her deformed personality. Fromm states that peoples need for identity can be quite overwhelming and they may be forced to conform to other peoples status in order to establish their own niche. Marla has a pretend sense of identity as it is not truly hers but it is a reflection of her mothers individuality. Also, Marlas need for creativity is unmet because she has not yet formed her own family and has no children. This is one of the many ways that human beings seek to transcend. Marla has not yet experienced this because she has not adapted to an individual identity which would allow her to seek outside relations which would prompt the desire for children. Her symbiotic relationship with her mother is the greatest barrier to the fulfillment of the need for creativity.

Another unmet need is the existential need for a frame of orientation. This is the need to develop an understanding of the world and life in general. Moreover, this understanding must be rational and one which provides individuals with meaning. Fromm relays that an individuals desperateness to seek meaning in life may lead them to accepting false rationalizations as the truth. Marla does not possess any affiliations which would assist her in understanding life since she is always attached to her mother. In addition, her unhealthy relationship with her mother lives no room for her mother to help her develop an understanding of the world.

4.
Marla has adopted the authoritarianism mechanism in order to escape from freedom. This mechanism allows individuals to blend with others in a hierarchical authoritarian system. Marla has submitted to her mothers authority by conforming to the mothers way of life. She is dependent on her mother and Marla has identified with her structural providence.  In playing the parental role, Marlas mother establishes rules for her daughter and sees to it that they are followed. On the other hand, Marla has learnt to submit to her mothers wishes and will make sure she follows the rules to the letter. Apart from this passive mechanism, Fromm also notes that there is an extreme side o the authoritarian mechanism. This is the masochistic version where individuals assert their structures to others as a way of escaping their individual identities.

From the above analysis, it is evident that the paper has provided an illustrative evaluation of Fromms personality theory. Marla, the main subject of the case study provides a suitable example in describing Fromms depiction of freedom. Emerging form a symbiotic family, Marla has no individual identity and uses the authoritarianism mechanism in order to escape from her identity. Fromms existential needs have also been outlined with the conclusion that only the needs for relatedness and rootedness have been satisfied in Marlas case. Furthermore, Marla has been described as having a receptive orientation personality. This has been derived from her characteristic of being dependent on her mother for the fulfillment of her needs and wants.