Psychology

The experiences of physical abuse, emotional trauma and maltreatment to children often  create serious psychological effects and extended socio-emotional complications effecting the memory of a child.  Continual studies, regarding the assessments of the effects of maltreatment on child behavior, have increased over the last few decades. And although empirical studies mainly focused on the relationship between maltreatment and the emotional side effects, it was the psychological scholars who researched the link between maltreatment and memory. In similar studies, psychological scholars accounted for studying how and why children, who are exposed to some forms of maltreatment, could recount certain traumas.  A review of some empirical studies and articles focusing on the memory effects of child maltreatment is used to back up the thesis.  This goes in line with the objective to identify co-relational factors present in the studies to be mentioned in their pursuit to answer questions about child maltreatment and  memory.

Although scientific studies about maltreatment and memory are still in its early wake, many scholars have found its importance.  Child maltreatment resulted into effects such as short-term brain damage, which significantly distorted a childs memory, causing the subject to experience false memories after laboratory examinations.  However, it is not exclusive in its attempt to provide empirical reviews regarding false memories as this may constitute broader scope of the topic.

Before going through a review of the five scholarly studies, it is imperative to define major variables such as maltreatment, memory, stress, trauma, and socio-emotional factors relating to the subject of the studies.

According to Goodman et al (2010), maltreatment is an act of physical abuse, sexual abuse, andor psychological abuse that constitutes profound failures of care giving and in effect, results to psychological and emotional damage.  Definitions of maltreatment vary according to ones legal state interpretations or in ones cultural atmosphere.  One certain effect of maltreatment, according to Goodman et al (2010) is that the child is being deprived of essential psychological and emotional factors for normal adaptation of personal development.  They also argued that children, who have suffered from this maltreatment, are more likely to carry the struggling effects throughout their life.  This hypothesis will be justified based on results of investigations conducted for diverse subjects.

Memory in most states is defined as the psychological accounts of experiences wherein a person is able to recount when a similar event or circumstance triggers the subconscious to relive the experience, thus, producing the same emotional distress as it happened in the first time of their experience.  In the case of maltreated children, their ability to recount the actual events concerning stressful life experiences is very high especially if the event has happened in the early stages of their childhood.  This assumption will be justified through a series of empirical results provided by the studies concerned.

Stress is developed when a subject is involuntarily subjected to events which solicit emotions that are unhealthy for the victim and psychological pressure becomes prevalent when they feel obligated to recount events from the maltreatment to give that information, for example in laboratory examinations.  Associated stresses are included when a victimized child is faced with previous triggering behaviors and identifying characteristics in certain people, places or objects.  Post traumatic stress can still be experienced even by adult children of maltreatment, both physical and emotional abuse.  However, their ability to recount these events is dependent on the severity of the maltreatment or their capacity to undergo normal process of emotional and psychological healing as an adult.

The Nature of Child Maltreatment and its Consequences
In the primitive times, punishments are carried out by adults, particularly parents to correct behaviors of children.  Some forms of punishment include beating, slapping, pinching, and other physical forms.  These methods may positively constitute to a specific level of trauma for children especially if reasons are not very well explained.  The severe application of punishments may lead to child abuse.  However, the concept of child abuse is far different from child maltreatment primarily because disciplined methods differentiate in cultures and on a much broader scope then actual child abuse that requires rigorous process of getting into the causes and effects.

The most common forms of child maltreatment are physical, emotional neglect and sexual abuse.  Child neglect is considered the most frequent act of maltreatment, according to the Childrens Bureau (2009).  Sexual abuse, is the most identified forms of maltreatment and receives greater amount of attention from researchers and scholars for the matter of identifying its effects on the childs memory.  Based on a report provided by Goodman et al (2010), the topic of sexual abuse on children has been the focus of controversy primarily because of two reasons  the notion of repressed memory and the argument that most sexual abuse situations take place in daycare settings.  Findings on sexual abuse also serve as major evidences in legal cases, forensic interview practices, and even in the formulation of local and national policies for children.  What fueled the controversies in discussing child maltreatment is the intervention of psychologists and their assumption that sexual abuse has significant effects on the childs memory.  Although it may be possible that sexual abuse may not cast effects on the victims memory, one thing is certain, and that is, in all cases, there are justified negative and positive outcome of the experience depending on the victims ability to incorporate self-healing.

In an empirical study conducted by Goodman et al (2001), it was reported that at least five out of 10 children experienced sexual assaults before their 18th birthday.  More of these cases were left unreported, or if taken court, the basis of its validity is on the childs statements and most difficult to dicipher.

In examining the consequences of maltreatment on children, a rich body of research findings concludes that there are crucial effects on the victims cognitive, socio-emotional, and neuropsychological aspects.  In other findings cited by Goodman et al (2010), there were cases of maltreatment wherein the victims were suffering from delayed communication.  Such delays are in forms of cognitive processes, language, and intelligence.  It was assessed that these children who become victims of maltreatment are one to two years behind as compared to other children who have the similar demographic features.  Given the assumption of delays (because not all cases of child maltreatment constitutes delays and this aspect is still under debate), one of the highly observable effects is the childs inability to perform cognitive tasks in adherence with factors such as gender and age.  Another implication of child maltreatment is the limited language abilities executed by the victims, especially in memory-inducing interviews.  With these circumstances, the child will most likely exhibit stutters and reduction of comprehension when the child is prompted with questions pertaining to past events.  These delays can be present regardless of the amount of information suggested to be remembered by the child.  However, it is emphasized that memory deficits are not always evident in children who became victims of maltreatment because at some point of the studies, there were reported advantages regarding the recall of past experiences (Goodman et al, 2010) that helped victims sort out their memories.

In terms of the socio-emotional aspect, child maltreatment is believed to have adverse effects on the regulation of emotions, whether extrinsic or intrinsic.  This may involve factors such as attention processes, interpretations, and copying of behaviors.  According to Goodman et al (2010), children who experienced maltreatment exhibited poor emotional regulations as compared to non-maltreated children.  That is, expressed in their negative reactions to some events.  Maltreated children are also more likely to respond to positive and more appropriate emotion regulation.  It is generalized that both physically and emotionally abused children, as well as those who are neglected are more likely to develop difficulty in regulating their emotions.

Maltreatment also constitutes increased attentiveness to events suggesting emotional information.  For example, Goodman et al (2010) cited empirical findings that maltreated children easily identifies negative emotions such as anger or hatred and they can easily label such emotions as negative as compared to their ability to recognize positive ones.  This may be due to the accumulated negative emotions that the victims had in the course of the maltreatment process.  Moreover, it was found out that maltreated children have difficulty in disengaging themselves to negative stimuli, and as a result, such stimuli develops into full-blown emotional reactions.  These circumstances are all in correlation to the development of stress and trauma among adult children, who were maltreated during their childhood years.  As a result, adults exhibit symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PSTD).  This suggests that adults are more likely to be more attentive to information on events which induce stress or trauma.  An impacting effect, is that adults with PSTD can prolong their response to negative stimuli and later on develop better memory for such kind of information.

Another common, but major effect of child maltreatment and definitely the most problematic in terms of sociological capacity, is their perception on social relationships and their tendencies to lose trust or the lacking of trust for other people.  Since maltreatment during childhood shows that there is some extent of care giving, yet, unresponsiveness. Victims usually build up the belief that adults (or other people) tend to become unresponsive of their need and eventually develop negative feelings against them.  Difficulties in relationships are evident from the adolescent years to the young, adulthood stage but it is believed that such circumstance is negated given some time.

In legal cases, one of the interesting consequences of child maltreatment is the perception of the victim that other people would normally be unsupportive of their needs or their claims regarding the incident.  This is most evident when victims are asked vital information regarding their traumatic event(s).  Forms of Insecurity surface most when asked to disclose pertinent information because of their inner belief that they cannot generate support from other people. The inner child is unwilling to trust.  To counter this, interviewers or forensic professionals usually extend reassurance in protection and in support to the victim, in order, for the victim to have a participative role in the process of resolving cases.  Here, the victim is experiencing repressed emotion due to their inability to trust other people.  Hence, social dissociation is most likely to be experienced by victims of child maltreatment.

Memory and Child Maltreatment
PSTDs and other mental health problems have some crucial effects to the victims memory.  Some of the symptoms include emotional numbing and intrusive memories called flashbacks.  The intensity of the memory can be as severe as the first encounter of their traumatic experience. It is also possible that when flashbacks occur, the victim may not be able to feel any kind of emotion (emotional numbing), but the negative effect may recur at any given time.  This is in direct correlation with a childs dissociation to the traumatic events and critical because the victim may find it hard to disengage himself to the situations which trigger pain, stress, and trauma.

This aspect of PTSD research on child maltreatment is still new however, there are a number of efforts to determine the association of memory and maltreatment on the child.  For example, one methodology to assess this is the eyewitness memory recall interview wherein the childs memory is subjected to documentation prior to his past experiences.  In empirical findings cited by Goodman et al (2010), it was found out that when victims of child maltreatment were subject to eyewitness interview, the majority of them can remember the events or the experiences vividly even if the information of the experience is painful.   Thus, it is concluded that the accuracy of the memory of a maltreated child is relatively high.  However, there are no significant comparisons whether a maltreated childs memory is more accurate than that of the non-maltreated ones.

For example, in a study conducted by Eisen et al (2002), three 16-year olds were interviewed to examine their memory as part of an inpatient abuse-assessment program.   There were no fixed categorization in the form of abuse, thus, the subjects ranged from the physical to sexual abuse, and even neglect.  The study also examined non-victimized children as the experiments control group.   Results showed interesting findings as follows  first, it was found out that older children, who were abused from a younger age, are more likely to remember events vividly and possess the ability to answer questions in a precise manner as compared to the other subjects who are of younger age, abused a little older.  Secondly, this particular group of victims rarely makes a mistake when they are asked of sexually-abusive misleading questions.  Younger children, abused for a shorter amount of time, showed signs of confusion and distorted occurrences of abuse.

Eisen et al (2007) found greater disassociatative behaviors in young victims with memory errors during his examination.  Trauma symptoms were not associated with increased inaccuracy for victims who appear beneath dissociative tendencies.  This signifies larger memory error in traumatized children who are faced with a stressful event than those who were abused at a younger age.
Several issues received considerable attention in research on eyewitness memory among children being maltreated.  Because memory is the core issue under study, it is palpable that findings would be vulnerable to external factors.  Indeed, it is essential to conduct prospective research when researching documented cases of child sexual maltreatment.  Other studies focused not on the question of whether people remembered documented child sexual abuse cases but instead on the accuracy of memory among individuals who in fact recognized the abuse. Overall, the memory of a maltreated child, with emotional characteristics, is more accurate in their recall of events and remain surpassingly true compared to the ordinary or non-emotional victim.

Conclusion
Research and the discussion above show that there is a strong relationship between child maltreatment and memory.  Factors such as stress, trauma, and other psychological emotional instabilities are significant determiners of how a child remembers events pertaining to maltreatment.  Child maltreatment may come in various forms such as child neglect, physical and sexual abuse.  The intensity of which a child remembers events in correlation to the maltreatment is also dependent on his capability to cope in with such distress.  Coping capabilities differ upon the gravity of the maltreatment received, the support system that the child has, and his personal clinging to such past events.  It was discovered from the review of empirical studies above that the effect of childhood maltreatment can be potentially carried out into adulthood stage.  One of the most common effects of maltreatment is memory, the occurrence of flashbacks.  This, however, according to the articles reviewed, can be surpassed given an amount of time necessary for recovery.

Limitations
The review just focused on child maltreatment in general.  There are other significant and more detailed areas of child maltreatment that needs to have an additional amount of attention.  For example, the topic on eyewitness memory and child maltreatment was not discussed in the course of the review.  There are related articles pertaining to such areas of study.  Case studies were also not given to discuss in the comparisons of the effect of maltreatment into adulthood.  It is equally important to somehow measure the span of abused time to the long term effect of maltreatment on a persons memory.  Another interesting topic in relation to this one is how maltreatment affects intrapersonal and interpersonal relationships of the victim.  Although this may cast a little attention to the memory, this area would great significance  in helping to explain why victims of child maltreatment can or cannot handle relationships with quality.

Implications
Findings, in the studies being reviewed, have posted invaluable importance in the investigations of how maltreatment affects a childs memory.  These studies have created a ground basis on which researchers can be able to plot a graphical memory development impact among maltreated children.  Such could be a principal contributor for other research endeavors to push through.  Civic organizations pertaining to children benefit from these kinds of studies, since it provides them with empirical information on the effects of child maltreatment.  In return, these findings may potentially incur movements from concerned groups such as civic volunteers, policy makers, and health workers.  What I think is most valuable to the contribution of research, like the one being reviewed, is that they induce the motivation and the urge for legislators to formulate laws that will protect the rights and welfare of those who are victims of abuse.

Future Researchers
Other researchers may want to tackle topics such as child maltreatment, memory, and its after-effects on the course the development of relationships or eyewitness memory and child maltreatment.  Future research may also want to engage in different but related endeavors such as the effects of child maltreatment and memory in academic or professional performance andor child maltreatment and its post-trauma effects as experienced in personal relationships. Child neglect is considered the most frequent act of maltreatment, according to the Childrens Bureau (2009).

Outline
Topic  Maltreatment of Children is very important to the effects of how children cope with the many issues of physical, emotional and mental abuse. There is a direct correlation between a childs memory (flashbacks of traumatic events) and their maltreatment.  Memory is normally defined as the psychological accounts of experiences wherein a person is able to recount when a similar event or circumstance triggers the subconscious to relive the experience, thus, producing the same emotional distress as it happened in the first time of their experience. The main point of this paper is to identify some of the findings in research on this topic and the empirical findings from the psychological researchers research and examinations.  Child maltreatment resulted in short-term brain damage, which significantly distorts a childs memory, causing the subject to experience false memories after laboratory examinations.

Body- The Nature of Maltreatment and its consequences found that the longer a child was subjected to abuse, as a youngster, the more accurate their memory is in recalling their traumatic abusive experience. Disciplinary means of correcting a child differ according to the societal setting.  A major effect of child maltreatment and most problematic in terms of sociological capacity, is their perception on social relationships and their tendencies to lose trust for other people. intensity of the memory can be as severe as the first encounter of their traumatic experience. According to Goodman et al (2010), maltreatment is an act of physical abuse, sexual abuse, andor psychological abuse that constitutes profound failures of care giving and in effect, results to psychological and emotional damage.  Definitions of maltreatment vary according to ones legal state interpretations or in ones cultural atmosphere.  One certain effect of maltreatment, according to Goodman et al (2010) is that the child is being deprived of essential psychological and emotional factors for normal adaptation of personal development. In a study conducted by Eisen et al (2002), three 16-year olds were interviewed to examine their memory as part of an inpatient abuse-assessment program. Eisen et al (2007) found greater disassociatative behaviors in young victims with memory errors during his examination. The memory of a maltreated child, with emotional characteristics, is more accurate in their recall of events and remain surpassingly true compared to the ordinary or non-emotional victim.

Conclusion- Research shows a strong relationship between child maltreatment and memory. The intensity of which a child remembers events in correlation to the maltreatment is also dependent on his capability to cope with such distress. There are other significant and more detailed areas of child maltreatment that need attention, such as, the topic on eyewitness memory and child maltreatment. How maltreatment affects intrapersonal and interpersonal relationships of the victim. I think it would be invaluable research that they urge legislators to formulate laws that will protect the rights and welfare of those who are victims of abuse.

References for books
Child neglect is considered the most frequent act of maltreatment, according to the Childrens Bureau (2009).  

According to Goodman et al (2010), children who experienced maltreatment exhibited poor emotional regulations as compared to non-maltreated children.

Goodman et al (2010) cited empirical findings that maltreated children easily identifies negative emotions such as anger or hatred and they can easily label such emotions as negative as compared to their ability to recognize positive ones. compared to their ability to recognize positive ones.

Child neglect is considered the most frequent act of maltreatment, according to the Childrens Bureau (2009).

Introduction
Thesis Statement There is a Direct Correlation between maltreatment and memory.
What is the main point of correlating maltreatment and memory
Background of the study
State additional information effects
State relevant data about components and elements of the research
Review related literatures
Directly relate empirical research about the chosen topic
Significance of the study
State who or what institutions, organizations would benefit
State fields that would benefit from your study
Research gap
State what areas in your study can be beneficial
State potential focus for future research efforts
Nature of child maltreatment
Causes of child abuse
Explain gap and association between physical and sexual abuse
Explain the role of the family in childs ability to counter effects of abuse

Maltreatment and memory
Impacts of child abuse on childs eyewitness memory
Stress
Trauma
Dissociation
Language ability
Intelligence
Effects of age and gender differences
The presence of false memories
The art of questioning
Biases on abuse-related questions based on empirical studies
Methods to measure child maltreatment
Conclusion and Recommendations

In a recent article written about the link between stress and arthritis in children, Dr. Baum discussed different variables that contribute to this theory.  Dr. Baum is a professor of pediatrics at the University of Rochester School of Medicine in Rochester, New York (Study Links Stress and Childhood Arthritis, 1991).  Children who have arthritis have been discovered to have suffered a severe or traumatic psychological event before being diagnosed with arthritis.  Since arthritis takes many forms and goes by many names, it is assumed here that this means different types of arthritis.  Some children have been through a divorce or separation of their parents, a death in the family, or another type of psychological trauma.  The information is incredible.

It was interesting to learn that some children have died from complications related to arthritis.  According to the article, a starchy substance called amyloidosis can develop and cause kidney failure, which in turn has caused two children to die (Study Links Stress and Childhood Arthritis, 1991).  The statistics surrounding children and arthritis is even more startling.  One out of 1000 children have some form of arthritis.  In reference to psychological traumas and the diagnosis of childhood arthritis, it is estimated that 37 of children in the Finnish study group, had experienced a significant psychological event at least a year before the arthritis diagnosis (Study Links Stress and Childhood Arthritis, 1991).  This information certainly demands more research be performed for children with arthritis, especially in order to define the actual origin of the disease.

The information presented in the article is quite amazing to say the least.  Some information had been touched on in recent articles found in Parents magazine and discussed on the morning news programs, but the information presented was nothing of the magnitude in this article.  In reference to the dietary concerns of children in the United States, this report is more alarming.  Children today do snack more on sugary foods and ingest more sugary drinks.  This pattern is showing health problems that should not present until a much later age.  It makes one wonder if there is a correlation between the sugar ingestion and the brains ability to grow and function properly.

This article is especially important as rheumatoid arthritis is related to other conditions such as Lupus, Fibromyalgia, and other autoimmune disorders.  Each disorder is significant unto itself, but if children are now at risk of developing these diseases, then the medical community should run with the information and start conducting studies right away.  As someone who has Fibromyalgia, it should be simply said that it is like living in hell while still being alive.  No one should have to depend on a pill to be able to get out of bed or even walk five steps across the floor.  These diseases are debilitating to those who have them, and it would be a true injustice for children to start developing them without reason.   This article was truly enlightening and educational.  More information like this should be more easily assessable to the general public.  Updates on these topics would be appreciated.

Relationships are complexly held by people between behavior and attitude that
are sometimes influenced further by social reasons.

Generally, positive attitudes project good behaviors. They somehow depend on
one another and vice versa may mean another significant thing.

1.What are the factors that influence the link between attitudes and behavior
2.Provide examples that illustrate the factors you choose.

Answers

There are a lot of factors that link between the two. One is social influences. This is
about when one is influenced socially by the others. Another factor would be self
preconceptions or the thought beforehand.

An example would be when a person who doesnt smoke goes with the people of his
age that are smokers, then probably they would give him the influence of smoking so as
to belong. Another example is the prejudging or having a perception that is realized
before known.

Conflict between Parents and adolescents is a phenomenon common throughout the world, present in almost every functioning family and occurs primarily due to a variety of fundamental reasons, based on prior research that shall be mentioned in the subsequent paragraphs of this brief report.
On a very basic level, conflict can arise from a multitude of reasons such as limited time and resources. In principle, every parent desires to provide support and shelter to their children up to a certain point in time whereas children wish to receive that support for as long as they deem necessary. However, in practical terms, there comes a point when the child must learn to accomplish things on his or her own and if that decision does not align itself with the wishes of the child, conflicts might arise. In some cases, parents unknowingly submit a large amount of time and investment upon the first and last born child thereby isolating the middle children who consequently have to work harder and feel neglected.

Secondly, intergenerational conflict can also be established along the lines of the evolutionary differences that exist between generations in the sense that parents, normally, have undergone their initial development in a completely different age whereas children have to cope with inherently different problems in accordance with the time period that they were born in. Hence, variations in terms of the age gap that exists between parents and children can lead to conflicts arising from issues such as difference of opinions as well as the inherent rationale of changing cultural and social norms. For example, Facebook to a teenager would seem as the most normal thing in the world whereas parents would view it with distrust in regards to the exposure that it provides. Thus, when teenagers rebel, it is not to the quality of the support that the parents are providing, in fact it has more to do with the values that are being imposed upon them.

Gender is also a determining factor in regards to conflicts in the sense that boys are preferred in some family structures in various cultures because they have a better chance at making appropriate use of the time and resources invested in them. However, such discriminatory relationships are established at psychological levels that are difficult to comprehend, let alone identify.

Intergenerational conflict can best be resolved initially by the effort that parents can put in. Primarily, the development of children is inherently dependent on the way that they are brought up, hence, if parents play an active and a positive role during the initial stages of development can lead to lesser conflicts in the future. The most pressing issue that needs to be identified and addressed by parents is to reduce the evolutionary gap that exists between them and their offsprings. It is this gap that is the fundamental source of conflicts and can result in dysfunctional families.

However, issues like gender discrimination that subsists within various cultures as previously mentioned exists at a psychological level which is primarily unidentifiable and therefore cannot be addressed with proper psychotherapy methodology. This leads me towards establishing the point that therapy is also an excellent means of reducing the tension that exists between parents and children. Usually, therapy is looked down upon in a lot of cultures because it reflects the parents as well as the overall familys inability to overcome their own personal problems. However, research has proven that proper therapy can help reduce dysfunctionality within a family thereby decreasing major issues such as adolescent suicide attempts.

Drama Therapy in Reduction of Vicarious Trauma

Introduction
Drama therapy is defined as an intentional and systematic application of drama theater processes, products, and associations towards achieving therapeutic goals of symptom relief, emotional and physical integration and individualpersonal growth. Therefore, the goals of drama therapy are established from psychotherapy and the tools to achieve these goals are derived from theater
As Courtney observes

Children use drama as therapy spontaneously, with no outside direction or pre-imposed structure. Dramatic play is the childs method of symbolically expressing and resolving internal conflict assimilating reality releasing pent-up emotions learning to control potentially destructive impulses through fantasy expressing unaccepted parts of the self exploring problems and discovering solutions expressing hopes and wishesand developing a sense of identity (cited in Emunah, 1994, p.4).
These fundamental dramatic play functions in childrens lives are also relevant to everybody regardless of age towards building psychological growth and change. These plays help client to tell his or her story to solve a problem, achieve catharsis, extend the depth and breadth of inner experiences, understand the meaning of images, and strengthen the ability to observe personal roles while increasing flexibility between roles (Emunah, 1994) The experience by psychotherapists of failure of traditional verbal therapy to confront and work through client discomfort led to the evolving of drama therapy. The balance of verbal and non-verbal elements of play therapy together with its language of metaphor enables individual to work effectively within a therapeutic session.

Trauma experiences that have been proved to be toxic to peoples life can be recapitulated to workers who are supposed to be helping the traumatized clients. This has detrimental impact on the clients and also can lead to demoralization of help givers and wastage of resources. It can also lead to the belief that the clients receiving the help are the cause of the problem and that the clients condition is hopeless and they cannot be assisted or helped. This transfer of trauma from the client to the care giver is known as vicarious traumatization (Kellermann, 1992). Vicarious trauma is inevitable while dealing with clients who have suffered major losses or suffered terrible events. It cannot be avoided but can be modified or reduced through drama therapy (Jones, 1996).

Vicarious Traumatization
Vicarious traumatization also known as secondary traumatization is the impacts of working with clients who have experienced trauma through the narration of their story about the experiences. It is called secondary because the person affected by the trauma has no direct link with the event that led to the trauma but experiences the trauma indirectly through their client (Andersen et al, 2000). A good example is of workers helping the refugees. Since the refugees have suffered major losses and life-shattering events, those working with refugee such as teachers, medical doctors, and immigration workers among others will be subject to vicarious traumatization and its impacts. Vicarious traumatization is usually a slow, cumulative process that takes place in the course of hearing many stories of loss and pain (Emunah, 1994  Axline, 1947). This makes it difficult to detect its impacts on the care givers lives. In most cases the care givers do not realize that they are suffering from vicarious traumatization until when it is too late and they have burned out. The impact of vicarious traumatization like the impacts of trauma itself is serious and can be permanent. It interferes with the care giversworkers ability to do their work effectively and this highlights the need to recognize, monitor, and minimize the effects of vicarious traumatization on workers lives (Kellermann, 1992).
Understanding Vicarious Traumatization and Its Impacts

As defined above, vicarious traumatization is the experience of trauma related stress that is often caused by working closely with trauma victims. Trauma in definition is any experience involving serious threat personal harm or harm to others and excessive negative emotions like fear, helplessness, rage, and grief. These experiences can happen at any time of the life of individuals who have gone major losses or suffered terrible occurances for instance in a refugee life it can occur during resettlement process or any other phase of a refugee life (Jones, 1996).

It is not possible to hear stories of tragic losses, human brutal harassments, gross injustice, and needless suffering and remain unaffected by such stories by workers who encounter human suffering on daily basis. The only way to remain unaffected is only by choosing to be numb by blocking our senses but this most often leads to ineffectiveness in service delivery and can also lead to depression and other associated problems(Jones, 1996). The fact is that we are changed by the nature of our work usually in ways we do not want. For example a volunteer who is optimistic on himherself towards helping refugee may change drastically and become increasingly cynical and discouraged because of the unique stress emanating from hisher job (Andersen et al, 2000).

Vicarious traumatization can take various forms which are determined by an individual and the work environment.  The fact that people response to stress are different, there is no single symptom or set of signs that provide absolute evidence of vicarious traumatization or an exhaustive list showing all the signs and symptoms. Nevertheless, many of the impacts of vicarious traumatization are similar to the impacts of the trauma itself. Some of the signs and symptoms of vicarious traumatization include fatigue, depression, withdrawal from other or from activities, loss of trust, demoralization, cynicism, disillusionment, lack of sleep, loss of sense of humor, lack of emotional control and strong emotional reactions to minor occurrences, and difficulty ,making decision among other symptoms (Kellermann, 1992).

Like water flowing over a rock in a stream, on daily basis nothing seems to be happening to the rock but several years later, have of the rock will be worn out. Similarly, vicarious traumatization is cumulative and on a day-to-day basis, we may hardly realize that we are experiencing stress. Eventually the vicarious traumatization wears us down and if not dealt with, it leaves us in an exhausted position. Once in this exhausted position we are unable to think clearly, make rational judgments, listen carefully, or even help others effectively (Jones, 1996). In addition, attributes such as cynicism, disillusionment, despair among others becomes part of our permanent identities (Carey, 1990). These are serious and damaging impacts. Fortunately, such impacts can be reduced by taking an active role of reducing such stresses that are associated with working closely with trauma survivors. The first step towards addressing vicarious traumatization is to accept that such trauma does exist and have an understanding of the contributing factors of vicarious traumatization (Sue, 1994).

Management of Vicarious Traumatization through Drama Therapy
Some researchers argue that dramatic activities do encourage a removal from the reality which is an escapist way of being, relating to others, and relating to the world. Others argue that theatre and life are totally different states and if they do relate, it is only within the confines of a theatre with its formal demarcation of performance and audience areas. Some argument view adult dramatization as being regressive returning to the experience of the child in play. Nevertheless, some scholars argue that drama and living are virtually connected. As Evreinov wrote theater is a human impulse necessary to health living (cited in Jones, 1996). Drama therapy acknowledges that a part of this want and impulse can be employed in the maintenance of health and coping with emotional and psychological problems (De Dominico, 1988  Gil, 1994). The creation of world of fictions, play world, and the creative process itself does not need only to be seen in the perspective of an unhelpful retreat from the reality but rather be seen as an important part of living in the world. Creativity in drama therapy has a healing, life-affirming aspect. The fantasies and the artistic daydreams help in conquering the painful limits of existence. They also help in dealing with our basic conflicts (Carey, 2006).

Over the past two decades, acknowledgement of drama as a therapy has changed and this has led to the emergence of drama therapy as practiced today. These changes have two main aspects as observed by Jones that drama therapy session can deal with primary processes involved in the clients change rather than being adjunct to other ways of working, such as psychotherapythat the root of this process is in the drama. Dram therapy is not viewed by those who support it as a psychotherapy group containing dramatic activities but rather the drama process contains the therapy itself (Jones, 1996).

Drama therapy techniques
 Various elements of drama therapy combined together make drama therapy effective. These elements explain the way in which drama processes are therapeutic. These elements are not specific to any drama technique but their focus is on fundamental processes within all drama therapy. The key areas of drama and theatre which are of essence to drama therapist includes the process of entry into playing as a character, entry into dramatic state, dramatic communication, relationship between the dramatic frame and real life frame, performance processes, and the audience together with the process of witnessing in theatre. These drama elements are essential in developing the healing power of drama and theatre and out of them there emerges series of dramatic processes which are crucial towards making drama therapy effective(Carey, 2006, Sue, 1994).

The first core drama process is dramatic projection. Wilshire in his work Role Playing and Identity describes the relationship between stage space and audience in a way that help us to see how drama projection relates to drama therapy. He observes that the constant attractions and the needs for theatre is that we see ourselves writ large (Wilshire, 1982cited in Emunah, 1994). According to this observation, seeing ourselves the way we are leads toward changing oneself according to the way we understand or see ourselves which may include a change in our perspective. In addition, as an audience, we may identify with some of characters on the stage through motivation, experience or attitude. This may also be accompanied with projection of our own motivations, feelings and experience according to the direction provided by the actor. Drama content and action witnessed by the audience can lead to a shift of their relationship with the projected feelings during or after the performance. In turn, this may affect the way the audience understand and feel about part of themselves that have been engaged with the projection (Sue, 1997). This projection and identification with the drama scene are not only to the clients that could be suffering from trauma experiences but also to the therapist who from the traditional verbal expression may be a subject to vicarious traumatization because they are actively involved as an actor or audience and also the way the client expresses his or her inner feelings through acting has lesser vicarious traumatization impacts. Though some theory such as classic freud sees projection and identification as a defensive process, the drama therapy sees it as an important process that develops important relationship between inner emotions and external forms and presences (Weber et al, 2005  Carey, 2006).

The other core process of drama therapy is the therapeutic performance process. This process includes need identification, rehearsal, showing, and disengagement. There are two impacts within this process. The process enables the client to find expression for the material to be worked on and the working means with the material. During rehearsal and showing, client can shift their relationship to personal material by playing different role in the enactment or by directing alternative ways of the play. The focus here is to explore the content displayed by the client (Emunah, 1994). Clients and therapists may become role player or an audience member for a while. Taking these roles may be therapeutic for both the clients and the therapist for it provides an opportunity for a change in the link with the material or shift in perspective concerning the expressed material. The client and therapist involvement with the medium of drama through acting may allow them to experience their own creativity. Eventually they may be able to bring this creativity to bear upon the problem being focused within the action. This creativity may necessitate a change as the client and the therapist is able to address the problematic material from various perspectives (Sue, 1994). For instance, outside drama therapy session, a client or therapist may be stuck with a problem but they may feel capable of finding the solution through creatively engaging and experimenting new alternatives in the drama (Miller, 1994).

Empathy and distancing which are other processes within drama are often two opposing powers within theatre and drama therapy. But it would be beneficial if we see both as part of any reaction that result from a dramatic phenomenon either in a theatre or therapy. One may be established more strongly than the other but it is irrational to describe a response as being completely distanced or empathized. Empathy and distancing are associated to mediation and the ways in which an individual interact with others and happenings in life. As Landy observes, healthy functioning requires a balance of feeling and thought (Landy, 1986, 98 cited in Emunah, 1994). Empathy creates a bond between the actor and the audience. It is determined by the capabilities of the audience to identify with and engage their emotions with the character. It can also be evident within the character themselves through the role they are acting with. On the other hand, distancing is where the character does not allow total transformation on the stage into the character he is acting (Miller, 1994).

Empathy development in dramatic activities is therapeutic in itself. For instance clients may have a problem of establishing relationship due to lack of abilities to empathize with other. Empathetic responses during therapy sessions encourage the client to empathize with others outside the drama therapy. On the other hand, distancing encourages participation that is more focused towards thought, reflection and perspective. This means that the client function as a reader to the material without being disengaged from the material but involved with it from a different angle (Allen, 1988). This helps the client to develop perspective on themselves or an event. The degree of response, of empathy and distancing within an action can be used as an instrument in the assessment of clients relationship with the material they present (Emunah, 1994).

Drama representation is described as the means chosen to express material within a drama session. Two particular elements common within drama practice are personification and impersonation. Personification is representing a person quality using objects dramatically. Impersonation on the other hand refers to role playing of an imaginary person (Miller, 1994). These two elements provide the client or the therapist a given focus of expression and exploration of problems and concerns. It enables the client to have a taste of what it is to be another (Emunah, 1994). This links the process of developing empathy and eventually developing the ways a client interacts with others. It can also help in the process of viewing a problematic circumstance from the point of view of another person. Participation of fictional material through personification and impersonations can develop opportunities to change and explore the concern in a new direction. This fictional world enables client explorations which the client might deny in the normal life circumstances.

Play activities which is another process in drama therapy is described as the expressive language in the therapeutic sessions. In early stages, a play usually contains games and warm up activities. A state of playfulness is developed and the client enters into a special playing state. This playful session has a link with reality. The links are exhibited by a more creative, flexible attitude towards action, impacts and held ideas. This allows the client to adopt a playful, experimenting direction towards themselves and their life encounters (Miller, 1994).

This makes play to be seen as part of an expressive continuum using specific language such object play, toys, and games among others which is seen as part of hoe the client explores material in drama therapy (Weber et al, 2005)..

Conclusion
In many occasions, work in drama therapy involves a direct dramatic representation of reality for instance playing a role of real life event or an improvised experience. At other time it is indirect relationship with real life event. Many activities give a number of various types of connection simultaneously. For example a realistic role play of relationship between a client and her mother, exploring unaddressed problem may have various importance. To the client presenting material, to the other actors and audience, the relationship, may symbolize a struggle between self and personified by the mother and daughter (Miller, 1994). The process of being involved in drama activities and the potential creativity of enactment can bring transformation in a persons life. This is as result of transformation of identity- the artist in the client is established within drama therapy. The development of dramatic products, the participation in dramatic process can result to a combination of thinking, feeling and creativity (Sue, 1994). This combination has a potential to transform different aspects of clients way of understanding and responding to themselves and the world. The interactions which the client forms in the drama therapy can be transformative experience. Past interactions, events and ways of addressing them cab be brought into the current drama therapy and be reworked within the drama.

Introduction
Drama therapy is defined as an intentional and systematic application of drama theater processes, products, and associations towards achieving therapeutic goals of symptom relief, emotional and physical integration and individualpersonal growth. Therefore, the goals of drama therapy are established from psychotherapy and the tools to achieve these goals are derived from theater
As Courtney observes

Children use drama as therapy spontaneously, with no outside direction or pre-imposed structure. Dramatic play is the childs method of symbolically expressing and resolving internal conflict assimilating reality releasing pent-up emotions learning to control potentially destructive impulses through fantasy expressing unaccepted parts of the self exploring problems and discovering solutions expressing hopes and wishesand developing a sense of identity (cited in Emunah, 1994, p.4).

These fundamental dramatic play functions in childrens lives are also relevant to everybody regardless of age towards building psychological growth and change. These plays help client to tell his or her story to solve a problem, achieve catharsis, extend the depth and breadth of inner experiences, understand the meaning of images, and strengthen the ability to observe personal roles while increasing flexibility between roles (Emunah, 1994) The experience by psychotherapists of failure of traditional verbal therapy to confront and work through client discomfort led to the evolving of drama therapy. The balance of verbal and non-verbal elements of play therapy together with its language of metaphor enables individual to work effectively within a therapeutic session.

Trauma experiences that have been proved to be toxic to peoples life can be recapitulated to workers who are supposed to be helping the traumatized clients. This has detrimental impact on the clients and also can lead to demoralization of help givers and wastage of resources. It can also lead to the belief that the clients receiving the help are the cause of the problem and that the clients condition is hopeless and they cannot be assisted or helped. This transfer of trauma from the client to the care giver is known as vicarious traumatization (Kellermann, 1992). Vicarious trauma is inevitable while dealing with clients who have suffered major losses or suffered terrible events. It cannot be avoided but can be modified or reduced through drama therapy (Jones, 1996).

Vicarious Traumatization
Vicarious traumatization also known as secondary traumatization is the impacts of working with clients who have experienced trauma through the narration of their story about the experiences. It is called secondary because the person affected by the trauma has no direct link with the event that led to the trauma but experiences the trauma indirectly through their client (Andersen et al, 2000). A good example is of workers helping the refugees. Since the refugees have suffered major losses and life-shattering events, those working with refugee such as teachers, medical doctors, and immigration workers among others will be subject to vicarious traumatization and its impacts. Vicarious traumatization is usually a slow, cumulative process that takes place in the course of hearing many stories of loss and pain (Emunah, 1994  Axline, 1947). This makes it difficult to detect its impacts on the care givers lives. In most cases the care givers do not realize that they are suffering from vicarious traumatization until when it is too late and they have burned out. The impact of vicarious traumatization like the impacts of trauma itself is serious and can be permanent. It interferes with the care giversworkers ability to do their work effectively and this highlights the need to recognize, monitor, and minimize the effects of vicarious traumatization on workers lives (Kellermann, 1992).

Understanding Vicarious Traumatization and Its Impacts
As defined above, vicarious traumatization is the experience of trauma related stress that is often caused by working closely with trauma victims. Trauma in definition is any experience involving serious threat personal harm or harm to others and excessive negative emotions like fear, helplessness, rage, and grief. These experiences can happen at any time of the life of individuals who have gone major losses or suffered terrible occurances for instance in a refugee life it can occur during resettlement process or any other phase of a refugee life (Jones, 1996).

It is not possible to hear stories of tragic losses, human brutal harassments, gross injustice, and needless suffering and remain unaffected by such stories by workers who encounter human suffering on daily basis. The only way to remain unaffected is only by choosing to be numb by blocking our senses but this most often leads to ineffectiveness in service delivery and can also lead to depression and other associated problems(Jones, 1996). The fact is that we are changed by the nature of our work usually in ways we do not want. For example a volunteer who is optimistic on himherself towards helping refugee may change drastically and become increasingly cynical and discouraged because of the unique stress emanating from hisher job (Andersen et al, 2000).

Vicarious traumatization can take various forms which are determined by an individual and the work environment.  The fact that people response to stress are different, there is no single symptom or set of signs that provide absolute evidence of vicarious traumatization or an exhaustive list showing all the signs and symptoms. Nevertheless, many of the impacts of vicarious traumatization are similar to the impacts of the trauma itself. Some of the signs and symptoms of vicarious traumatization include fatigue, depression, withdrawal from other or from activities, loss of trust, demoralization, cynicism, disillusionment, lack of sleep, loss of sense of humor, lack of emotional control and strong emotional reactions to minor occurrences, and difficulty ,making decision among other symptoms (Kellermann, 1992).

Like water flowing over a rock in a stream, on daily basis nothing seems to be happening to the rock but several years later, have of the rock will be worn out. Similarly, vicarious traumatization is cumulative and on a day-to-day basis, we may hardly realize that we are experiencing stress. Eventually the vicarious traumatization wears us down and if not dealt with, it leaves us in an exhausted position. Once in this exhausted position we are unable to think clearly, make rational judgments, listen carefully, or even help others effectively (Jones, 1996). In addition, attributes such as cynicism, disillusionment, despair among others becomes part of our permanent identities (Carey, 1990). These are serious and damaging impacts. Fortunately, such impacts can be reduced by taking an active role of reducing such stresses that are associated with working closely with trauma survivors. The first step towards addressing vicarious traumatization is to accept that such trauma does exist and have an understanding of the contributing factors of vicarious traumatization (Sue, 1994).

Management of Vicarious Traumatization through Drama Therapy
Some researchers argue that dramatic activities do encourage a removal from the reality which is an escapist way of being, relating to others, and relating to the world. Others argue that theatre and life are totally different states and if they do relate, it is only within the confines of a theatre with its formal demarcation of performance and audience areas. Some argument view adult dramatization as being regressive returning to the experience of the child in play. Nevertheless, some scholars argue that drama and living are virtually connected. As Evreinov wrote theater is a human impulse necessary to health living (cited in Jones, 1996). Drama therapy acknowledges that a part of this want and impulse can be employed in the maintenance of health and coping with emotional and psychological problems (De Dominico, 1988  Gil, 1994). The creation of world of fictions, play world, and the creative process itself does not need only to be seen in the perspective of an unhelpful retreat from the reality but rather be seen as an important part of living in the world. Creativity in drama therapy has a healing, life-affirming aspect. The fantasies and the artistic daydreams help in conquering the painful limits of existence. They also help in dealing with our basic conflicts (Carey, 2006).

Over the past two decades, acknowledgement of drama as a therapy has changed and this has led to the emergence of drama therapy as practiced today. These changes have two main aspects as observed by Jones that drama therapy session can deal with primary processes involved in the clients change rather than being adjunct to other ways of working, such as psychotherapythat the root of this process is in the drama. Dram therapy is not viewed by those who support it as a psychotherapy group containing dramatic activities but rather the drama process contains the therapy itself (Jones, 1996).

Drama therapy techniques
 Various elements of drama therapy combined together make drama therapy effective. These elements explain the way in which drama processes are therapeutic. These elements are not specific to any drama technique but their focus is on fundamental processes within all drama therapy. The key areas of drama and theatre which are of essence to drama therapist includes the process of entry into playing as a character, entry into dramatic state, dramatic communication, relationship between the dramatic frame and real life frame, performance processes, and the audience together with the process of witnessing in theatre. These drama elements are essential in developing the healing power of drama and theatre and out of them there emerges series of dramatic processes which are crucial towards making drama therapy effective(Carey, 2006, Sue, 1994).

The first core drama process is dramatic projection. Wilshire in his work Role Playing and Identity describes the relationship between stage space and audience in a way that help us to see how drama projection relates to drama therapy. He observes that the constant attractions and the needs for theatre is that we see ourselves writ large (Wilshire, 1982cited in Emunah, 1994). According to this observation, seeing ourselves the way we are leads toward changing oneself according to the way we understand or see ourselves which may include a change in our perspective. In addition, as an audience, we may identify with some of characters on the stage through motivation, experience or attitude. This may also be accompanied with projection of our own motivations, feelings and experience according to the direction provided by the actor. Drama content and action witnessed by the audience can lead to a shift of their relationship with the projected feelings during or after the performance. In turn, this may affect the way the audience understand and feel about part of themselves that have been engaged with the projection (Sue, 1997). This projection and identification with the drama scene are not only to the clients that could be suffering from trauma experiences but also to the therapist who from the traditional verbal expression may be a subject to vicarious traumatization because they are actively involved as an actor or audience and also the way the client expresses his or her inner feelings through acting has lesser vicarious traumatization impacts. Though some theory such as classic freud sees projection and identification as a defensive process, the drama therapy sees it as an important process that develops important relationship between inner emotions and external forms and presences (Weber et al, 2005  Carey, 2006).

The other core process of drama therapy is the therapeutic performance process. This process includes need identification, rehearsal, showing, and disengagement. There are two impacts within this process. The process enables the client to find expression for the material to be worked on and the working means with the material. During rehearsal and showing, client can shift their relationship to personal material by playing different role in the enactment or by directing alternative ways of the play. The focus here is to explore the content displayed by the client (Emunah, 1994). Clients and therapists may become role player or an audience member for a while. Taking these roles may be therapeutic for both the clients and the therapist for it provides an opportunity for a change in the link with the material or shift in perspective concerning the expressed material. The client and therapist involvement with the medium of drama through acting may allow them to experience their own creativity. Eventually they may be able to bring this creativity to bear upon the problem being focused within the action. This creativity may necessitate a change as the client and the therapist is able to address the problematic material from various perspectives (Sue, 1994). For instance, outside drama therapy session, a client or therapist may be stuck with a problem but they may feel capable of finding the solution through creatively engaging and experimenting new alternatives in the drama (Miller, 1994).

Empathy and distancing which are other processes within drama are often two opposing powers within theatre and drama therapy. But it would be beneficial if we see both as part of any reaction that result from a dramatic phenomenon either in a theatre or therapy. One may be established more strongly than the other but it is irrational to describe a response as being completely distanced or empathized. Empathy and distancing are associated to mediation and the ways in which an individual interact with others and happenings in life. As Landy observes, healthy functioning requires a balance of feeling and thought (Landy, 1986, 98 cited in Emunah, 1994 ). Empathy creates a bond between the actor and the audience. It is determined by the capabilities of the audience to identify with and engage their emotions with the character. It can also be evident within the character themselves through the role they are acting with. On the other hand, distancing is where the character does not allow total transformation on the stage into the character he is acting (Miller, 1994).

Empathy development in dramatic activities is therapeutic in itself. For instance clients may have a problem of establishing relationship due to lack of abilities to empathize with other. Empathetic responses during therapy sessions encourage the client to empathize with others outside the drama therapy. On the other hand, distancing encourages participation that is more focused towards thought, reflection and perspective. This means that the client function as a reader to the material without being disengaged from the material but involved with it from a different angle (Allen, 1988). This helps the client to develop perspective on themselves or an event. The degree of response, of empathy and distancing within an action can be used as an instrument in the assessment of clients relationship with the material they present (Emunah, 1994).

Drama representation is described as the means chosen to express material within a drama session. Two particular elements common within drama practice are personification and impersonation. Personification is representing a person quality using objects dramatically. Impersonation on the other hand refers to role playing of an imaginary person (Miller, 1994). These two elements provide the client or the therapist a given focus of expression and exploration of problems and concerns. It enables the client to have a taste of what it is to be another (Emunah, 1994). This links the process of developing empathy and eventually developing the ways a client interacts with others. It can also help in the process of viewing a problematic circumstance from the point of view of another person. Participation of fictional material through personification and impersonations can develop opportunities to change and explore the concern in a new direction. This fictional world enables client explorations which the client might deny in the normal life circumstances.

Play activities which is another process in drama therapy is described as the expressive language in the therapeutic sessions. In early stages, a play usually contains games and warm up activities. A state of playfulness is developed and the client enters into a special playing state. This playful session has a link with reality. The links are exhibited by a more creative, flexible attitude towards action, impacts and held ideas. This allows the client to adopt a playful, experimenting direction towards themselves and their life encounters (Miller, 1994).
.
This makes play to be seen as part of an expressive continuum using specific language such object play, toys, and games among others which is seen as part of hoe the client explores material in drama therapy (Weber et al, 2005)..

Conclusion
In many occasions, work in drama therapy involves a direct dramatic representation of reality for instance playing a role of real life event or an improvised experience. At other time it is indirect relationship with real life event. Many activities give a number of various types of connection simultaneously. For example a realistic role play of relationship between a client and her mother, exploring unaddressed problem may have various importance. To the client presenting material, to the other actors and audience, the relationship, may symbolize a struggle between self and personified by the mother and daughter (Miller, 1994).. The process of being involved in drama activities and the potential creativity of enactment can bring transformation in a persons life. This is as result of transformation of identity- the artist in the client is established within drama therapy. The development of dramatic products, the participation in dramatic process can result to a combination of thinking, feeling and creativity (Sue, 1994). This combination has a potential to transform different aspects of clients way of understanding and responding to themselves and the world. The interactions which the client forms in the drama therapy can be transformative experience. Past interactions, events and ways of addressing them cab be brought into the current drama therapy and be reworked within the drama.

Communication is an issue that affects all learners in different stages of life within different environmental settings. Language is a crucial tool in any given environment as it helps learners in communicating, building friendship, expressing themselves and most of all comprehending the world around them. In the education system, for example K-12, higher education or in business and industry, language is life because without good communication a person is faced with confusion, vulnerability, insecurity and uncertainties (Laird, 1985). For instance, if you would visit a class where you do not understand the language the teacher or students are using you would end up being confused and vulnerable. The same applies when given a sentence with more than five vocabularies. There will be no understanding what the sentence was meaning. It is without question that acquiring a language, understanding it and employing it are the most fundamental aspects of learning. Learning process includes theories such as humanism and cognitive- Gestalt theories and factors that affect learning process such as peer pressure, reward and punishment among others.


THEORIES OF LEARNING
There are various theories that can help a child in acquiring, learning and employing a language. Languages can be classified as primary language also referred to as mother tongue, secondary language or foreign language. Primary language is the first language a child acquires and learns while the second language is acquired when people migrate to another country. However when people learn a language that is not natively spoken in their country, they are said to learn a foreign language. For example, English-speaking students in U.S can learn Spanish or Germany in school as a foreign language. There have been many theories proposed in teaching and learning languages. Developments in psychology and linguistics have influenced these theories and inspired second and foreign languages learning.

THEORY OF HUMANISM
Theory of humanism mostly concentrates on a childs self-esteem or self-concept (McGill  Beaty, 1995). When a child is positive about himherself, it is easier for himher to learn and understand a language. Feeling good about oneself is a positive start in developing any form of communication. When a student is positive about himselfherself, it is easier to understand the strengths and weakness and the areas they need to improve on. Learning is regarded as a building stone to self-actualization. According to Laird (1985), it is a growing process that has no end but progresses as a person grows up until he reaches the optimum levels of self-development. The ability of a child to learn a second or a foreign language depends a whole lot on the drive heshe has. The speed and efficacy of learning depend mostly on the joy and satisfaction a student derives from achieving something. The theory suggests that using humanism a student gets intrinsic rewards. Intrinsic rewards indicate personal reward where students feel happy with themselves because they have achieved something on their own without any form of outside influence. Learning a language requires a student to be self-motivated to learn.

The facilitative theory of learning is one of the humanistic approaches developed by Carl Rogers and others (Laird, D. 1985). The theory names educators as facilitators who should provide a good learning atmosphere to the learners. The facilitators work is to ensure that learners have a comfortable atmosphere free from external threats so that they can generate new ideas. The theory suggests that naturally every human being is born with eagerness to learn.  The theory suggests that, although human beings are born eager to learn, as time elapses they give up due to unpleasant consequences or adopted resistance. Facilitative theory also suggests that changing ones concept of self is the most significant form of learning.

The Humanist Classroom Environment composes of a facilitative teacher and a learner. The difference between facilitative teachers and other teachers is that they are more liberal of how they run their business in addition to being more flexible. They have a close relationship with the learners and listen to them keenly. Facilitative teachers play close attention to the courses content as much as their relationship with their learners. They usually ask for learners opinions whether positive or negative and use the feedback to construct their behavior or improve themselves. According to The journal of psychology (1998), facilitative theory eliminates the resistance to learn by encouraging learners to take responsibility for their own learning. Through experiences and insights, the learners give much input for learning. The learners are also encouraged by humanistic approach that the best evaluation for learning is self-evaluation through solving significant problems in order to achieve significant results.

THE PEER FACTOR
Peer pressure involves values, social pressure or actions a person has to adopt in order to be accepted in a peer group (Buhs, Ladd  Herald, 2006). A peer group can be a group of people of certain age or ability. Most people have regarded peer pressure as a bad thing but it has been discovered that peers have influenced everyone either negatively or positively. In a learning environment, peer pressure is one factor that influences a learners capability to progress.

A hypothetical model taken to evaluate peer exclusion as a determinant for learning in students from kindergarten to the fifth grade was undertaken. The model indicated a close relationship between negative peer treatment and peer rejection to learners schools adjustment and engagement(Buhs, Ladd  Herald, 2006).The hypothetical method shows that a learners self concept, achievement and engagement is highly linked to victimization and rejection. A learner who has been rejected by the peers does not perform well in school. On the other hand, a child who is victimized or bullied by the peers lacks concentration in class and also suffers from academic self-incompetence. A childs engagement and adjustment in learning is therefore determined by chronic maltreatment or victimization and peer rejection.

Study shows that there is a distinctive connection between peer rejection, a childs mother-child interaction and sociometric status (Buhs, Ladd  Herald, 2006). Children who have bad social reputation and low interaction with their mothers are seen to exhibit undesirable qualities by their peer and may thus be rejected. Therefore, the only way to ensure that a child does not face peer rejection is to ensure that mothers are free with their children and interact well. Mothers are the first encounters with a child and the way they relate with them determines whether they will have low or high self-esteem. Positive children tend to be accepted by their peers while negative children get bullied and

LEARNING FROM EXPERIENCE
According to the Cognitive- Gestalt theory, Learning is a process that is achieved through experience. This theory emphasizes on problem solving skills achieved through deriving meaning and experience in order to develop insights(Laird,1985).This theory suggest that a problem should be considered and solved through productive and reproductive thinking. Productive thinking is using insight to come up with an unplanned response to problems and situations. Reproductive thinking is using what is an already known or previous experience in solving problems. In a learning environment learners use the previous assignments or experience to analyze a concept and also examine relationship between various concepts using reproductive thinking. Gestalts theory helps learners to develop unconscious thinking and increase mental processing speed.

REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS
When students have wronged it is logical to punish them. The debate however is on the form of punishment that is effective. Punishment is only effective when students are afraid. Therefore, any form of punishment that makes students afraid and stops them from repeating mistakes is considered an effective. Punishment should not bring negativity in the learning process. It should be a way that corrects mistakes positively making students feel better and not worse (Darling-Hammond  LaPointe, 2007). Many people rule out detention as a way of punishment because despite its implementation students still have indiscipline problems. Positive ways of punishing students are advocated such as telling students what they should do rather than what they should not do and setting examples to them(Darling-Hammond LaPointe,2007).Teachers should be the source of inspiration through rewarding obedience. Students who behave responsibly and show effort in learning should be rewarded as a way of encouraging positive behavior.

CONCLUSION
Learning is all about motivation (Laird, 1985).The various theories that have been laid out as theories of learning suggest that learning a language requires a person to be self-motivated. Although facilitation is required through educators or facilitators, acquiring, learning and employing a language mostly occurs through inward drive and experience. Some of the experiences learners go through during learning process include peer pressure and discipline. Children who lack warm maternal interaction face peer rejection while in school which causing disengagement and lack of adjustment. When it comes to issues of punishment, positive motivation and reward of the obedient students are effective forms of punishment rather than detention.