Psychology

The current increased stress in a number of competitions can result in athletes to react in both mental and physical manner which may negatively influence their performance capabilities. They may perhaps be nervous, anxious or worried of the competition outcomes and thus find it difficult to focus on the chore in hand. This has made several coaches to develop an escalating interest in sport psychology and especially in the field of managing competitive anxiety. The interest has particularly concentrated on techniques which athletes may utilize in the competitive circumstances in order to optimize and maintain their performance (Murray, 2009). Imagery is among such techniques used by athletes to relax and focus their entire attention in an optimistic manner on the task of participating in competition. It is defined as a mental technique that can modify, strengthen or create pathways pertinent to the coordination muscles by purely training with mind. This mental technique is based on the essential principle that an individual can exercise brain parts with imagination inputs rather than from senses (Murray, 2009). The objectives of this paper are to discuss
The importance or benefits of imagery technique to athletes
How to implement imagery technique
The psychological study findings and theories of imagery technique

Imagery is an athletes armory in gaining the enchanting edge in a competition, as it provides confidence, concentration, commitment and control to the athletes. These 4Cs are considered the major mental qualities which are imperative for triumphant performance in various sports. Confidence emanates from the comparison made by an athlete between the objective and their capability (BrianMAC, 1997). Imagery makes athletes believe that they can achieve their set goals and thus makes them acquire self confidence. When athletes have self confidence they will tend to show enthusiasm, keep trying even in difficult times, be optimistic in their strategies and ready to take their share of accountability in fail and success. Besides, imagery offers an athlete with concentration ability, which is a mental quality that enables him or her to concentrate on the chore in hand. If athletes encompass inadequate concentration, then their athletic capabilities will never be efficiently or effectively utilized to the task.

Similarly, imagery assists athletes gain emotional control in the face of adversity thereby remaining positive. This is very significant to triumphant or successful performance of an athlete. Anger and anxiety are the major emotions which are frequently linked to poor performance of any athlete. Imagery is used by athletes to lessen anxiety, especially mental anxiety (negative thoughts, lack of concentration and worry). When an athlete is angered, the source of anger often becomes his or her main focus. This compromises focus on the task, deteriorates both performance and confidence of an athlete, thus imagery is used to curb such greasy slope to failure (Rushall and Lippman, 1997).

Furthermore, commitment is very important for any sport performance, as athletes should commit themselves fully. However, several factors, such as injury, lack of enjoyment and mental anxiety can undermine an athletes commitment to his or her goals thereby deteriorating performance. Imagery technique helps an athlete to set goals in order to become extra committed to realizing them. That said, various sports, such as tennis, skating and golf not only need physical skills, but a sturdy mental game too. There is a general preaching by most coaches that sports are ninety percent mental and only ten percent physical. This is very true, especially in sports, where tenths of an inch or hundredths of a moment separate the winners from mediocre athletes and an extra edge may be tremendously essential. Hence, several athletes are embracing and turning towards imagery technique in an attempt to take their performance abilities to the highest level (Rushall and Lippman, 1997).

Implementing imagery technique is an individual preference, as there has never been an accurate way to practice it. It can be done off or on the field and includes longer and shorter versions (Murray, 2009). The longer version includes activities, such as lying down and closing eyes in completely quite room and this frequently lasts from fifteen minutes to about an hour. The version is often utilized before the match and assists prepare the athletes mentally. Here, the athletes rehearse a perfect performance, frequently visualizing a full match point by point (Murray, 2009). The shorter version only lasts for a few seconds and this can be utilized during the competition. For instance, before serving, a tennis or volleyball player may visualize a perfect serve to a desired point. This version of imagery technique is very useful and vital, since it familiarizes the players with high  shot sequences, developing expectation skills for a more effective and quicker response during the real point. Another way in which various athletes implement imagery technique is during lifting weights, bike rides and rowing. Since they apply physical energy as they do mental rehearsal, it assists facilitate the real competition (Foster, 1990).

That aside, psychological researches conducted on imagery technique during 1960s and 1970s were rather not consistent due to dissimilar confounds, such as lack of reliable controls and subjects. Besides, researchers applied a diversity of skills, as they were not precisely sure what subjects ought to do when engaged in imagery practice. However, today there is adequate reliable evidence which supposes imagery technique can get better motor performance in an assortment of sports. Isaac (1992) conducted a research that examined the effect of imagery practice on sport skills. While previous studies on the subject indicated an optimistic influence of imagery technique on sports, they were never carried out in the real field context utilizing subjects who learned real sport ability rather than mere new motor tasks. Isaac eradicated this particular limitation in her study. She as well tested the assumption of whether individuals who have enhanced images as well as control over their images lead to better performances (p, 192). The outcomes of her study indicated a substantial disparity in the low and high imagers. The high imagery groups demonstrated much more improvement in performance than the low imagery group. The study therefore posits that in spite the level of skill or ability (experienced or beginner) imagery technique proves to be very effectual in improving the performance of the players (p, 198).

In recent research carried out by Roure et al (1998), found 6 definite autonomic nervous system responses that associated with imagery rehearsal and thus enhancing sports performance. The experiment revealed the correlation existing between actual physical tasks and imagery rehearsals on better performances in sports. In addition, the study indicated that imagery techniques when well utilized induce a definite pattern of autonomic reactions to players thereby positively affecting their performance (p, 108). Other psychological studies conducted have showed that imagery mental techniques not only improve athletic performance, but improve intrinsic motivation as well. Whats more, imagery does not only work in adult, but in children too (Hall, 1995). The outcomes in a study which examined children using this technique indicated that children who utilized it had substantial improvement in the quality and accuracy in their performance compared to the control group. This therefore provides an ample opportunity to children to learn imagery skills at a tender age which can finally offer them better control over their anticipated destiny (Orlick, 1992).

Sports psychologists over the years have tried to comprehend the exact mechanisms which enable imagery technique to work. A number of theories exist, though sports psychology encompasses no single theory that explains fully the efficient and effectiveness of imagery technique. The psychoneuromuscular theory developed by Carpenter in 1894 remains the earliest theory which presumes that imagery rehearsal reproduces the real motor pattern which is being rehearsed (Paivo, 1985). His assumption is that motor patterns that are produced during imagery versions are no different from those utilized for physical practice. However, a prominent symbolic learning theory differs with Carpenter supposition that imagery technique works because of muscle activation. Symbolic learning theory presumes that imagery works due to opportunity to practice symbolic elements of the motor task. It therefore assumes that learning attained from imagery practice correlates with cognitive learning.

A more topical model that places more weight on psychophysiology goes a mile further by including a definite meaning of the word image (Murphy, 1990). The model is referred to as Ahsens Triple Code Model of imagery (ISM). Ahsen believes that there are 3 fractions to an image. The first fraction is that image ought to be centrally touching sensation, so as to depict the actual world. It should have all ascriptions of a sensation and must provide the imager with much more realism to an extent of enabling him or her to interact with it as if were the actual world. Secondly, image results in a somatic response existence. Thus, the very step of imaging leads to psycho-physiological transformations within the body. Finally, the third fraction of the image is the real sense of the image. Ahsens ISM model supposes that each and every image has a substantial meaning and definite meaning can entail something unrelated to different individuals. Since individuals have unique upbringings and backgrounds, Ahsens model presumes that the real internal image meaning can be quite dissimilar for each person, even if the set imagery conditions are similar (Murphy, 1990).

In conclusion, imagery as a mental technique used by athletes appears beneficial and promising on improving the performance in sports. Though it cannot be used as a substitute to physical practice, imagery is not as important and beneficial as physical practice. Hence, any amalgamation of imagery, mental training and physical practice appears to be the greatest for athletes. Virtually all available evidences, including researches have indicated that imagery mental training enhances motor skills. In recent years researches have further proved that imagery or visualization can enhance numerous skills linked to sports in the real field situations. Therefore, it is apparent that imagery mental practices are beneficial to each and every sports person who would like to take his or her performance to the next level. Whether a professional athlete or recreational, the benefits emanating from imagery mental practice proved triumphant at any level of competition. Thus, a club player who craves to defeat team mates, or professional athletes who desire to be on top should incorporate imagery mental technique together with physical practice in order to be successful in this uphill dream.

Psychodynamic is a method used to help people find relief from emotional pain which could be as a result of unresolved conflicts of the past. It is usually done verbally. Its based on the idea that a human beings behavior is shaped by known and unknown influences. It aims at solving this past experiences that could have left lasting traces that could affect your self-esteem leading to maladaptive patterns of behaviors. It involves patient talking and the therapist interpreting the patients words and behaviors (Miller, Luborsky, Jacques and John, pp 23).

Psychodynamic is basically concerned about psychological processes, past experiences, existence of unknown motivation, ego, superego and defense mechanisms (Jackson and Beverly, pp 45).
Behaviorists theory also attempts to explain human behavior but its in conflict with psychodynamic theory in ways which human behavior is developed. The behaviorist believes that culture and subculture have a role to play in molding someones behavior and as a result has an effect on the personality. Therapy in a behaviorist is based on the principles of learning using all the processes and methods such as training, reinforcing, desensitization, aversion therapy, modeling and replication (Chamorro-Premuzic, and Adrian, pp67).

According to Miller, Nancy, Lester, Jacques and John (pp 89), this theory has little concern about any outside energy or force in determining behavior. To it, normal behavior comes as a result of acceptable conditioning, reinforcing and modeling while abnormal behavior comes as a result of defective conditioning, reinforcing and modeling. It is not interested in the effect of developmental processes on the behavior. In treating the patient, the therapist has little regard to the patients feelings, thoughts, emotional experiences or imagination. It is believed that if one understands the environment and how to interact with it, he can basically understand himself and his behavior. The behaviorist believes that behavior is cultured and it can also be uncultured.

Mental Health Professionals generally provide the Legal System with one or more of four main services

As basic scientists, they study a phenomenon to learn as much as they can about it, with no regard for whether their work has relevance to the legal system.

Working with the Police and testifying at trials, they are consultants in the process of the voir dir, the selection of the jury.

As Policy Evaluators or Researchers, They study the effects of changes in correctional programs, legislation, and social services.

As Expert Witnesses,  Criminal Psychologists testify on a wide variety of subjects in civil and criminal trials

Although they are incarcerated and cut off from all-but-limited contact with the outside world, the Constitutional Rights afforded to every American Citizen still apply to prisoners therefore, confidentiality is very important. Whatever passes between a Criminal PsychologistPsychiatrist and a prisoner is deemed confidential, unless the information the Mental Health Professional obtained somehow involves imminent danger to a personpersons. As an evaluator in pre-employment screenings, the Criminal Psychologist must take into account whether the amount of time the patientprisoner has spent in a correctional facility has effectively produced rehabilitation to the level that the Criminal Psychologist is comfortable in Accepting or Denying the patientprisoner employment.  This standard is also employed by Criminal Psychologists who are evaluating a prisoner s eligibility for parole.

A Police Psychologist does not only evaluate criminals--they also evaluate Police Officers. For example, let s say that I am a Doctor of Criminal Psychology, and I have been evaluating a Police Officer with a fitness-for duty series of examinations. Factors to be consistently monitored and recorded by the Criminal Psychologist include, but are not limited to

The Police Officer s ability to work well with others--in the role of a SWAT team Police Officer you must follow the direct orders of your superiors because lives are at stake. SWAT team work requires one  Chief  Police Officer among many  Indian  Police Officers.

The Police Officer s record of aggressive behavior. How quickly does he  lose his cool  and react with violence or aggressive actions. These types of behavior would be catastrophic to a SWAT team member.

How well, exactly, does the Police Officer treat people of other Races, Religions, Gender,  or sexual orientation. With 1 in 10 males currently surveyed to be gay, and 1 in 13 women currently surveyed to be gay, chances are the Police Officer will have to come face-to-face with this issue. The United States was horrifically attacked on September 11, 2001, The perpetrators who conducted the coordinated attacks on the World Trade Center, the Pentagon, and, if it had not  crashed  mysteriously in a field in Pennsylvania, possibly even The White House, were all members of the Religion of Islam. How would the Police Officer being evaluated react to being paired up with a Muslim person The role of psychology in relation to the field of law enforcement has been a critical one. There are people like W.A. Mozart, who wrote his first symphony at age 7, his first opera at age 12. By the time he turned 8-years-old he was performing for Kings and even the Pope himself.  There are people like Einstein, who, while dyslexic and unable to read, was doing Engineering Calculus by age 11. Then we have other people, ordinary childhood, no sexual molestation or abuse, like Jeffrey Dahmer, whose parents loved him dearly as a boy growing up in Wisconsin. By the time he turned 12 he was hiding in the woods near his home, waiting for joggers to pass by so he could club them and drag them away to dismember their bodies, and then there are very young adolescents like Ted Bundy, who committed his first murder at the age of 12. People generally have no idea what forces come to play in creating these seemingly-fore-ordained masters and monsters--people except Criminal Psychologists. Their field of study provides the only insight we can everr hop to have into what factors in the human brain are or are not absent, or which neurotransmitters fire or don t fire. It s all up to them.

Cognitive Psychology was seen by the earliest researchers in the field as a process of forming internal representations of the external world. One school of thought focused on the schemata, the processes of assimilation and accommodation, and abstract reasoning. Another school of thought focused on the role of language in the development of problem-solving skills, decision-making, and formulating plans. Yet another method of approaching Cognitive Psychology is to view cognitive development in terms of information processing, which involves the storage, encoding, and retrieval of information. In fact, two developmental models of information processing have emerged in recent years.

According to Wilhelm Case, cognitive development is a matter of a child becoming more efficient in using mental strategies. The very heart of Case s model is known as mental space (M-Space). M-Space is a hypothetical construct similar to short-term or working memory, whose chief function is the processing of information from the external world. Expansion of M-Space, or increases in a child s information-processing capacity, is caused by a combination of three variables
First, as the brain matures, so does its capacity to process greater amounts of information. Maturation of the brain, also enhances more efficient processing of information.

Second, as children become more practiced at using schemata, less demand is placed on cognitive resources, which can now be devoted to other, more complex cognitive tasks.

Third, schemata for different objects and events become integrated so that children now think in novel ways about these objects and events.

Reference Article
Article Seeing in Colour. Optics and Laser Technology (2010), doi 10. 1016j.optlastec.2010.02.006.
Authors Beau Lotto, Richard Clarke, David Corney and Dale Purves.
The Reference Cited in the Textbook
The Reference cited in the Textbook.

The article written by Lotto, Clarke, Corney and Purves (2010), is the reference cited in the textbook. The subject matter being discussed is why understanding perception as well as biology of color is challenging for humans. The text book seeks to address this subject by developing a framework that will clearly explain color perception. The text book seeks to explain this by exploring color vision and its biological advantages, the mechanisms underlying color perception, trichromacy, the psychological explanations of contextual impact of color and any new approaches to understanding color effects in humans.

Chosen Article
Article Color Vision The Wonder of Hue. Current Biology, 18 (16) R700-R702.
Authors Jay Neitz and Maureen Neitz
Summary of Introduction Section of the Paper, the Subject Matter and the Relevant Background

This paper seeks to explain how the brain works in terms of color vision. Just like in the reference material which emphasizes that understanding the perception of color is a hard task as what is seen always is not always what is there, the article by Neitz and Neitz (2008), also stresses that for one to understand the biology of the brain, they have to think outside the usual tradition of natural science. According to these authors, this biology has to be connected something that is intangible or to a personal experience. This article seeks to explore the area of color visionexperience by using what psychologists have verified from neurons that guarantee to help make this link.

This study is based on observation and on literature review. It uses observation of how children differentiate between different colors noting the uniqueness of the colors and builds on it to explain the biology behind color vision. This study is purely developed from literature and compiles different findings to explain the nature of different colors to various neurons in the brain.  This study uses Albert Einsteins observation that progress in the way we understand nature originate from an instinctive grasp of essentials of complex facts which leads scientist to postulate basic laws which are hypothetical from which they use to draw conclusions. Since this formula has been found to be useful in shedding light on the cosmos, the authors argue that it could be fruitful in comprehending the workings of the brain which are quite complex. It is on this formula that the study or rather the article is founded on. The authors acknowledge that neurosurgeons are yet to agree on the hypothetical laws that should be adopted.  Mller s law of specific nerve energies  is one of the grand postulates that have guided efforts to fathom the brain. According to this law, each sensory nerve ending type, whether stimulated mechanically, electrically or any other way, results to its own sensation particular sensation. In addition, sensation type is not determined by any special character of the various nerves but rather by the part of the brain where their fibers terminate.

The proposal that an individual neuron located somewhere in the brain results to a specific sensation relates the firing of a neuron to perceptual experience. This paper therefore seeks to explore the mechanisms that determine the relationship between the perception of color, the physical stimulus and the wave composition of light by reviewing literature n prior studies.

Summary of the Methodology used in the Paper
Unlike other typical papers, this paper does not clearly indicate the methodology that was used to achieve the research objective. However, from the article, one can deduce that as an explanatory study, the researchers critically analyzed and reviewed literature on prior studies on similar topics so as to address the research problem. The authors therefore collected data using secondary sources. Though this method has been criticized by many authors who argue that the researcher is not able to identify the errors that were committed hence provide for them to increase validity and reliability, it still is a good method as it saves on time and financial resources which are very critical in research work. Besides, this method is the best to use considering the comprehensive nature of this study. As long as the authors conduct a critical analysis and review as many articles as is possible before making the conclusion, use of secondary sources and analysis methods such as content analysis that was used in this article are quite reliable.

The researchers use a model in which they start by explaining the biology behind color vision. According to the authors, there are a set of receptors whose function is to transform light absorption into signals that are electrical for each point that is discriminable in the retinal image. The characteristicsfeatures of each of the tiny parts are extracted as these signals are transmitted to higher regionscenters to form the basis of percepts.  The way the brain represents a small segment in a visual scene should be comparable to a pixel in a video display though not necessarily perfect. The color as well as brightness of light for each pixel are represented as 3 numbers that denote the intensities of each of the colors red, blue and green. In the visual brain, the features of each small subdivision of a specific scene are experienced as some blend of essential color sensations. That is the unique hues of red, blue, green, yellow as well as white and black. This explains why more than four crayons added to the page of coloring book whether white or black will satisfactorily represent the world to children.

The authors then go on to review literature on similar topics. They use Stoughton and Conways discovery of the posterior inferior temporal cortex, a brain region where the there is clustering of turning chromatic sensitivities of neurons around the unique hues as a historical perspective of the topic under study. The researchers use this discovery to address the question of how three types of cone photoreceptor eventually relate to black, white and the four unique hues green, yellow, red and blue as the six fundamental color percepts.

Results
To explain the wave composition of light, the researchers use the experiment conducted by Thomas Young who demonstrates that representation of a wavelength of light which is continuous variable requires a set of receptors that code the virtual amount of light in spectral bands that are discrete. Since the visual system is required to analyze each point of an image for its wavelength, its biology is limited to a number of detectors with varying spectral sensitivities. This is because it is impossible for each point to be conceived as containing an infinite number of particles. It is therefore necessary to limit assume that the number limited for each filament of the nerve which is sensitive may comprise of three portions (one for each of the principle colors). The proposed receptors have been linked to human perceptions by Herman Helmholtz who argued that Youngs postulation is a law of specific sense of energies which tries to explain the sensations of green, red, and violet. This statement resulted to a search for a theory of color perception that can be comprehended in terms of efforts to fit the properties of neurons to peoples perceptions of color.

Other literature however shows that the three postulated receptors by Helmholtz and Young do not match up with the number of the unique hues people experience. The authors use a diagram to demonstrate the perception of an equal energy spectrum in the event the hue perception is directly attributed to three photoreceptors. According to Herring, one of the reviewed authors, the colors are in fact four and not three as earlier suggested by Helmholtz and Young. These colors are blue, red and green plus yellow- which the trichromatic does not seem to explain. According to this author, the four colors have a simplicity that other colors lack and though colors may be explained as shades of one or two of these four colors which are psychologically simple, such as green , blue, or blue-green, colors can never be explaineddescribed as simultaneously being yellow and blue or as red and green.

This argument is resolved in modern literature by a two-stage color processing model proposed by Hurvich and Jameson. In this model, the first stage produces outputs from the three types of cone which undergo the second stage in where they are combined using neural circuitry that compares the cones quantal catches to create circuits for hue percept that exist as pairs that are opponent to each other. That is blue-yellow and red-green.  In the second processing, the opponent character explains the yielding of a percept of white which is absence of hue that is caused by mixtures of all visible wavelengths of light. It also explains Herings observation that no color is seen as reddish-green or as bluish-yellow.

According to the authors, advances in electrophysiology since the 1950s have made recording of chromatic response properties of neurons possible. The fact that recordings from neurons that are spectrally opponent in the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus seemed to confirm the features of the two-stage color processing model proposed by Hurvich and Jameson excited biologists. Although the classes of blue (B) - yellow (Y) lateral geniculate nucleus appeared to be two Y-B and B-Y, which would be expected to match up with blue and yellow, and the two lateral geniculate nucleus of red G-R and R-G as required for4 green and red respectively, the illustrated spectral signatures of the neurons illustrated by this model do not correspond with the way humans perceive color. These discrepancies have been noted but ignored by most textbooks which try to explain the human color perception.

The authors found that there is great precision in the characterization of absorption of the three cone pigments over the last couple of years. As a result, it is now possible to describe explicitly the difference between perpetual, opponent hue mechanisms and the textbook lateral geniculate nucleus cells in terms of the contribution of the specific cones to each. Here, there is substantial difference between the two. The text book lateral geniculate nucleus of red-green opponent cells lack short wavelength sensitive cone input and the middle wavelength sensitive cones oppose the signals of the long wavelength sensitive cones. On the contrary humans red-green perceptions are based on circuitry where signals from short wavelength sensitive as well as long wavelength sensitive cones account for red perception in that the redness sensation at the spectrums long-wave-length end is mediated by long wavelength sensitive cones while the redness at the violet end of the spectrum are mediated by short wavelength sensitive cones. Signals from the middle wavelength sensitive cones which account for greenness oppose both the short wavelength sensitive and long wavelength sensitive inputs.

Likewise, blue-yellow lateral geniculate nucleus cells that are best characterized have input from short wavelength sensitive cones which is against the sum of long wavelength sensitive and middle wavelength sensitive cones.  However, unique hues spectral location requires blue-yellow color vision to have a basis on short wavelength sensitive and middle wavelength sensitive cones minus the long wavelength sensitive circuitry where middle wavelength sensitive cones mostly produce blueness of wavelength that is above 460nm while the short wavelength sensitive cones produce blueness of wavelength that is below 460nm. From the results it is clear that most typical lateral geniculate nucleus cells predict an absence of redness in the spectrums short wavelength end and an absence of blueness in the long wavelength part of the spectrum (above 460nm), and the unique hues will be located in locations that are different from those observed by humans. The phenomenological color experience does not therefore match with the properties of lateral geniculate nucleus neurons.

Interpretations of the Results by the Authors
This paper acknowledges that it is a challenge to understand color vision as far as its biology is concerned. The article attributes this to the inability to solve the lacking correspondence between phenomenological color experience and the properties of lateral geniculate nucleus which are the only cells that have been offered as candidates for arbitrating hue experience. As a result, some vision scientists are questioning the possibility or whether it is sensible to reconcile neurophysiology and phenomenology domains. According to the article, the discovery of cells that have spectral signatures that match humans hue perception presents a possibility to eventually solving the transformation of cone signals into color vision by the circuit. Previously, difficulty in finding a hypothetical logical solution has been the main challenge to resolving the inconsistency between hue perception and the characteristics of color opponent cells. According to the authors, the simplest idea is to extend the two-stage model where more processing stages can be added to the cortex so as to further that are wrong into ones that correspond to perception. The authors however note that this idea, however well the version is explained or thought out is not adequate in explaining the biology of color vision and raises more questions than it actually answers. Presently, it is not clear how and why cone signals would be recombined by the cortex.

In contrast to the above multistage idea, another alternative has been offered in which it is argued that parvicellular lateral geniculate nucleus spectral opponent cells that are most frequently recorded are not a substrate for color vision. According to the proponent of this hypothesis, most of the spectrally opponent neurons are highly responsive to wavelength and to spatial contrast. It is therefore possible that only a small subset of opponent lateral geniculate nucleus cells, ones which all along have the appropriate spectral signatures mediate hue perceptions. This suggestion has turned out to be prophetic as new findings imply that there are populations of cells whose cone inputs match the required circuitry for human hue perception. The authors argue that it could be possible that the human brain utilizes the majority of the lateral geniculate nucleus cells for spatial vision by obtaining their robust responses to luminance contrast and having the spectral responses filtered out. Signals from population cells that are much smaller but with the proper spectral signatures at the lateral geniculate nucleus level could be used for color. The authors conclude that the two discoveries of neurons that possess the appropriate spectral properties to arbitrate phenomenological color experience, one population in the lateral geniculate nucleus and the other in the posterior inferior temporal cortex is welcoming news. These discoveries could signify two levels of a color processing pathway that starts in the retina and terminates in hue perception.

How this Article relates to the Reference Material.
Lotto, Clarke, Corney and Purves (2010), argue that understanding the perception of color is quite difficult as what humans see is not what is always there. Neitz and Neitz (2008) also explain that comprehending the brain requires thinking that is beyond the main tradition of natural science and that its biology has to be related to something that is not tangible. Both papers seek to provide frameworks that clearly explain why humans see what they see.  The article by Neitz and Neitz (2008), acknowledges that it is a challenge to understand color vision as far as its biology is concerned and attributes this to the inability to solve the lacking correspondence between phenomenological color experience and the properties of lateral geniculate nucleus which are the only cells that have been offered as candidates for arbitrating hue experience. In so doing, this paper supports what is in the text book and is referenced as (Lotto, Clarke, Corney and Purves (2010)) discusses.

In discussing the mechanisms that underlie color perception, I feel that the text book should have used  more of information from the reference particularly as far as Youngs postulation which is a  law of specific sense of energies that tries to explain the sensations of green, red, and violet is concerned. The article covers this part more comprehensively and explains how the referred to Youngs postulations as a law of specific energies, a statement that has increased the quest for a theory for a theory of color perception that can be comprehended in terms of efforts to fit the properties of neurons to peoples perceptions of color. The fact that the article used literature which shows that the three postulated receptors by Helmholtz and Young do not match up with the number of the unique hues people experience also matches with the discussions of the reference on trichromacy. Einsteins postulations should also be added to Newtons concept to make the conceptional framework of the textbook more comprehensive.

The psychological explanations of the effects of color are not as comprehensively covered in the article as they are in the reference but what is there is quality material that could be added to the text book. The fact this article compares the psychological perception of color and what actually happens increases its quality. The authors have adequately addressed and compared phenomenological color experience with the psychological contextual effects of color in terms of the properties of lateral geniculate nucleus cells. This article basically explains why understanding the concept and biology of color perception in humans is challenging and tries to provide an easier framework that explains the concept of color vision. The findings also give the identified suggestions of models that could make this explanation and understanding much easier. This article should be given more weight in the text book because of its various contributions to the topic under discussion. The author should use particularly in explaining why comprehending perception of color remains challenging.

Today more than ever, there is a growing interest in studying interpersonal relationships. According to Felmler  Spreecher (2000) in their article Relationships and Social Psychology Intersections and Future Paths, the study of close relationships is both a sub-area within social psychology and a field that involves a number of different scholars from different fields and disciplines.

In our times, we have now two international organizations that are devoted in scholarships on relationships, International Society for the Study of Personal Relationships and International Network on Personal Relationships publishing their own journals namely (1) Personal Relationships and (2) Journal of Social and Personal Relationships (Felmee  Sprecher 2000).

Psychologists, sociologists and other experts in different fields join together to study and research this particular endeavor. It has been said that the field of interpersonal relationships is one of the most rapidly growing areas in the social and behavioral sciences. Topics such as love, social exchange and equity, commitment, communication, sexuality and social support, intimate relationships development and dissolution have been studied by these researchers. (Berscheid  Reis 1998).

Literature Review Rationale

Love Styles
John Alan Lee (1973, 1977) studies in love styles had become the basis and focus of many studies about the conceptualization of love. Lee s famous classification of love style including agape, ludus, storge, mania, pragma and eros had been the subject of different research and studies of succeeding generation of psychologist and other experts. See also Appendix 1

Love styles refer to how individuals define or approach love, such that their attitudes regarding love guide their behavior toward, and experience of, those they love.

Felix Neto (2005) in his article Love Styles A Cross-Cultural Study of British, Indian and Portuguese College Students interpreted Lee s  colors of love  in the following manner.

Agape is the selfless love style. The agapic lover seeks complete spiritual and emotional identification, is quite willing to make sacrifices in the interests of the lover and may have conflict about sexual expression.

Eros represents the emotionally intense individual who is looking for a psychologically intimate and open relationship as well as a passionately expressive one. The erotic lover has strong ideas about the type of person she or he desires for a partner and attempts to achieve a close and intimate relationship when she or he finds that person.

Storge is a type of love involving a more slowly developing friendship. Shared interests, trusts, and acceptance acquired over time seem central to this style of love.

Pragma is the love style in which the suitability of the partner to one s own position and place in the community is central. The pragmatic lover is looking for similarities of interests and background that are likely to make the other a good life partner.

Ludus represents the lover who thinks of love as a sophisticated game. She or he enjoys having multiple partners, and is thus not interested in making a deep commitment to one person.

Mania is the love style characterized by intense emotional involvement, with concerns about the loss of the other, which lead to feelings of jealousy and exclusiveness. The manic lover often feels insecure in relationship

Thomas S. Langner (2002) in his book, Choices for living coping with fear of dying interpreted Lee s categorization with the following key words (p. 26).

Agape Christian love, selfless and altruistic, love of mankind  possibly a combination of commitment with passion focused on God or on ideals, and compassion reserved for the less fortunate.

Eros erotic, love at first sight, physical attraction and pleasure.

Ludus roving lover, flirtation, passion with no intimacy or commitment.

Mania obsessive, addicted love, infatuation

Pragma pragmatic, compatible, arrange marriage, empty love, with commitment but no passion or intimacy

Storge slowly developing love between siblings or playmates, often described a slowly described as affection or friendship, liking.


Kurt Frey and Mhazad Jojjat of Yale University in their research entitled, Are Love Styles Related to Sexual Styles defined Lee s classification as
Agape all giving, selfless love
Ludus game playing, noncommittal love
Storge down to earth, friendship love,
Mania dependent and possessive love
Eros passionate, lustful love
Pragma logical, shopping list love.

Intimate Relationship
Relationships are formed as adaptive measures necessary for coping with adjustments and transitions. Concerns with the self and with ones ability to adapt cause people to seek identity through intimacy. There are different intimate relationships developed during early life stages that greatly contribute to the overall development of a person. As a whole, intimate relationship is a close interpersonal relationship characterized by needs fulfillment, enduring behavioral independence and emotional attachment (Miller et al., 2007).

Intimate relationships formed during early years
This part reveals a personality-based theory on how intimate relationships are formed during the early stages of a persons life. During the stages of infancy, childhood, puberty and young adulthood, new tensions and needs arise in a person. With an attempt to find ways of adapting to such stresses, people develop various types of intimate relationship that greatly mold their overall personality. Relationships that are formed during earlier stages serve as a backbone for interactions in later stages of life. In this light, continuum of relationships are formed throughout the lifetime that mold and shape specific personality traits.

The birth of an infant initiates himher into a process of life-long mutual adaptation between himherself, the broader social environment and hisher intimate relationship partners. Intimate relationships and interactions affect the adaptation pattern to the changing needs that evolve with each developmental stage throughout life. Various environmental contigencies to which a person must adapt are rooted in such relationships. According to Baldwin (1992), a person must learn to adjust to hisher own behavior first before adapting to others style of relating. Since human development is a result of environmental factors by which heshe is surrounded and complex interaction of forces that is within an individual, it can be considered that interpersonal relationships and interactions shape coping styles and individual personality (Baldwin, 1992). Therefore, maturity involves intimacy that is integrated into a framework, encompassing all aspects of ones self.
Formed relationships during infancy and childhood

Dimensions of Temperament
Individuals are biologically predisposed to adapt in the environment with hisher own style from the time of birth. Infant studies suggest that differences in human behavior may result indirectly or directly from genetic differences (McAdams, 1989). Developmental psychologists term such differences as  dimensions of temperament.  These dimensions are based on biological, chemical, experiental, social, and interpersonal factors, and manifested across different situations (McAdams, 1989). Psychologists Plomin and Buss have proposed four temperament dimensions present in humans (Mcadams, 1989)

Emotionality the tendency to express negative feelings like fear and anger vigorously and frequently.

Activity the physical movement that a person shows.

Impulsivity the tendency of a person to act quickly without deliberation, move from one activity to another, and find difficulty in practicing self-control.

Sociability the tendency of a person to become friendly and outgoing, and enjoy the company of others (McAdams, 1989, pp.136- 137).

In this theory, persons are predisposed with tendencies of developing the temperament dimensions to various levels. They become present during infancy and continue to develop throughout puberty and young adulthood. Subsequently, the social environment reacts to such tendencies, shaping and modifying them in various ways. The primary function of temperament is to develop a unique interpersonal style (McAdams, 1989).

Mother-Child Relationship
The mother-child relationship is the first intimate relationship of a human being. As stated by Freud (1949), the act of breastfeeding for infants is an individuals first encounter to intimacy. McAdams (1989, p. 139) stressed that the process of sucking is the most natural way to know the innermost self of another. During breastfeeding, an infant obtains pleasure and nourishment from sucking at hisher mothers breast, reducing the tension and stress caused by the so-called  hunger drive.  Engaging oneself into such tension-relieving activity during infancy stage serve as a basis for relationship development in later stages of life (McAdams, 1989). Changes like tension, stress and needs are based on the outcome of coping attempts during infancy. An individuals comfort and security needs are important in molding hisher intimate relationship with other people (McAdams, 1989, pp.  71-81).

Attachment
The love formed during the first year of life is the result of the bond between a mother and infant. Interactions between a child and mother form behavioral patterns in later life relationships. The personality that can be developed as a result of this bond is seen from a securely attached infant. According to Rothbard  Shaver (1994), if a mother become sensitive and responsive to the infants needs, the infant may develop  secure  attachment style. When infants develop  secure  attachment style, they feel at ease and confident when interacting with others. They know how to take turns, to lead and follow, and to receive and express feelings. Attachment bond provides pattern and serves as a prototype for close or intimate relationships (McAdams, 1989).

Interactions with peers
During the childhood years, an individuals need for individuation and autonomy affects hisher intimate interactions and relationships with peers. Children often seek to communicate, share and enjoy the company of their peers. Such interactions are primarily based on the childs quest for coexistence between their newfound independence and the love that they experienced during infancy (McAdams, 1989).

Aspects of the child-parent relationship affect the efficacy of a childs adaptation. The acquired competencies of a child through intertactions with parents are often reflected in hisher interaction with peers. According to Prager (1995, p. 89), children who express more self-reliance and control are found to have nurturing parents, while children who express less autonomy have parents who are more permissive (1995, p. 89).  In kindergarten and nursery schools, children who had a secure attachment bond during infancy are described by teachers as more popular and competent. They are also observed to have initiative and dominance (McAdams, 1989, p. 43).

Prager (1995) claimed that such interactions with peers characterized by sensitivity, emphatetic concern, ability to verbalize feelings and sensitivity also serve as prototype of intimate relationship in later stages of life (1995, p. 87). Therefore, behaviors that are formed during infancy can be reflected through peer interaction. In turn, peer interactions also serve as a basis for intimate relationships in the succeeding life stages (McAdams, 1989).

Formed relationships during adolescence and early adulthood
Friendships
The role of parents and friends changes significantly over the course of social development. During early adoloscense, the amount of time that children spend with their parents drop in half, compared to the time they spend during preschool years (Weston, 1996).

An adolescent undergoing emotional and physical changes seeks out relationships that enhance abilities to adapt to new stresses and needs. Adolescents seek for those who are experiencing similar changes whom they can share their thoughts and feelings. Intimate interactions and relationships between friends increase during this stage in life because they provide adolescents with opportunities for self-clarification (Weston, 1996). Through the formation of coconstructive dialogues between friends, adolescents can participate together in constructing and exploring selves (Weston, 1996).

Going back to the example of the securely-attached infant, it can be considered that the ability of a person to construct such dialogues are directly related from hisher earlier interactions (Youniss, 1980). The secured infants autonomous and sensitive personality traits are reflected in relationships with peers. These traits also reappear in the dialogues formed with friends during the adolescent years. Such dialogues are important for the construction of intimate peer relationships, as well as for the relief of pressure that adolescents feel from adult supremacy (Youniss, 1980).

Maturity
During the stage of puberty, adolescents begin to adapt to the adult world and its institutions while, at the same time, adapting to the changing parts of theirselves. They discover that they have new sexual and emotional needs. During this process, adolescents start to realize the limitations of authoritative figures (their parents) (Graham  Lafollette, 1989). Accordingly, adolescents need to distance themselves from their parents in order for them to take responsibility of the aspects of their own character (Graham  Lafollete, 1989).

Multiple selves
During late adolescence, a person must first confront the problem of multiple selves (Prager, 1995). It is during this time that adolescents realize that hisher personality changes from one situation to another. This is the life stage wherein an individual seeks to craft a narrative of self that provides a sense of continuinity and sameness (Prager, 1995). The importance of intimate friendship and love formed during the early adulthood are attached from the adaptive and valuable contribution dialogues made with peers during the adolscence stage. Individual differences can be identified by the capacity to form intimate relationships characterized by depth, partner individuation and commitment based on the formed interactions during early life (Prager, 1995).

Self-definition through story
During the transition period from adolescence to early adulthood, an individual seeks to discover hisherself through story in biographical and historical terms. For example, a child views hisher past as a series of factual events, while a young adult becomes curious to uncover the validity and meaning of these facts. During early adulthood, a person does not search for hisherself in others, but rather confronts the other as a separate person with whom heshe longs to connect (McAdams, 1989). The ability of an individual to create a well-articulated life story and to combine hisher multiple selves results in the ability to guide  hisher emotions, personality traits and actions (McAdams, 1989).

Intimate relationship as a whole
Intimate relationships that are formed during infancy, childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood give rise to continuing relationships, and ultimately to individual development (Savin-Williams  Berndt, 1990).

Intimate relationship as a whole is a close interpersonal relationship that can be defined by characteristics like repeated interactions, emotional attachment, needs fulfillment and enduring behavioral interdependence. According to Miller (2007) et al., intimate relationships play a central role for the overall human experience. Individuals have the universal needs to interact, which is further satisfied when intimate relationships are formed (Perlman, 2007). Miller et al. (2007) said that intimate relationships are comprised of sexual and romantic relationships, those who we marry and provide personal and emotional support, the people whom we love and like and the people that we are attracted to. Intimate relationships also provide individuals with a social network of people that can provide them with strong emotional support and fulfill their need to be cared for, as well as their needs for love and belongingness (Miller et al., 2007).

In order for a person to sustain to intimate relationship, heshe must have a well-developed interpersonal and emotional awareness (Aronson, 2003). From the center of self-differentiation and self-knowledge during the early life stages, intimate relationship joins close friends, family and those whom we are in love (Vitalio, 2005).

Emotional and physical intimacy
Kakabadse (2004), distinguished different forms of intimacy physical and emotional intimacy. In sexual relationships, emotional intimacy is established after physical bonds have been developed. Accordingly, the process of falling in love has a biochemical dimension driven through the physical reactions of the body, and a social dimension driven from talk that stems from sexual union andor regular physical closeness (Kakabadse, 2004).

Physical intimacy is characterized by passionate or romantic love and attachment, as well as sexual activity that is developed after emotional intimacy. It is governed by a higher order strategy, to which a person may not be aware of (Kakabadse, 2004). According to Mills  Clark (1982), an individual can obtain physical intimacy by getting close to someone in order for himher to get something or give something to them. The so-called something may not be offered if the relationship between two persons are not intimate (Mills  Clark, 1982).

Emotional and physical intimacy in relation to love
Love is an important factor in both physical and emotional intimate relationships. Two types of love in an intimate relationship include companionate and passionate love (Hatfield  Rapson, 1993).   According to Hatfield  Rapson (1993), these two kinds of love are primarily based on the parent-child attachment. The studies about passionate love are focused more on the infants attachments to their caregivers, which serve as the prototype for passionate relationship. On the other hand, studies about companionate love are focused on the infants attachments to their parents, which serve as the prototype for companionate relationship (Hatfield  Rapson, 1993).

Passionte love is an intense emotion that is often labeled as obsessive love, infatuation, or being in love. Hatfield  Rapson (1993) defines passionate love as a complex functional whole including appraisals or appreciations, subjective feelings, expressions, patterned psychological processes, action tendencies and instrumental behavior.

On the other hand, companionate love is a far less intense emotion that is sometimes called conjugal love or true love. It is a combination of feelings including commitment, deep attachment and intimacy. It is defined by Hatfield  Rapson (1993) as the affection and tenderness people feel for those with whom their lives are deeply entwined.

Intimate relationships are always connected with love styles. Some researchers developed a scale that will measure how close couples are, while others proposed that couples   can adopt to the six love styles mentioned above (Hatfield  Rapson, 1993).

Happiness
Humanistic Psychology
Arguably, there is no psychologist today that can rival the influence of Abraham Maslow when it comes to both humanistic and positive psychology. According to Janet Simons (1987) et al. in their Psychology   the Search for Understanding, Maslow developed and provided a theory of personality that influenced a wide number of fields. In many respects, this has been owed to the high level of practicality that Maslow provided. As stated, his theory accurately described many realities of personal experiences and many people claim that they can relate to what Maslow is trying to say. They can recognize some features of their experience or behavior which is true and identifiable but which they have never put into words.

In many respects, we can see that Maslow provided an alternative view to the mainstream science. In his book, The Psychology of Science A Reconnaissance (1966) he argue against the mechanistic tradition of modern science that taken for granted different definitions, axioms and concepts. He debunked the claim of modern science as the only reliable path to the acquisition of knowledge. For Maslow, this mechanistic approach of mechanistic science is  naive, ethnocentric, relative to time and place, neither eternal nor unchangeable and determined by its characters. For him, he merely regarded science as another philosophy of knowledge comparable to earlier and existing philosophies of knowledge.

As a response to mechanistic science, he introduced a counter philosophy that is against the dehumanized view of the world. As he said,  it might be called a rediscovery of man and his human capacities, needs and aspirations,  (p. 2). This is what is known as the humanistic science. Along with his restoration of humanistic approach to psychology, other disciplines also underwent the same revolution including business, politics, religion and social sciences.

David Shaffers  Katherine Kipps Developmental Psychology Childhood and Adolescence is a book which provides a comprehensive discussion regarding child and adolescent development. The book is not a mere professional discussion regarding the psychological development of children and adolescents, for it also discusses how various information, theories, and researches can be applied to real-life settings.

The goal of the book is to be able to provide the reader with a description and explanation of development. It also aims to help the reader aid developing individuals optimize their developmental processes (Shaffer  Kipp, 2010). The book is divided into five parts, each with chapters focusing on specific issues regarding development. Each part has a thorough discussion of concepts and theories which may enlighten an individual on how the psychological development of a child occurs.

The first part of the book is Part I Introduction to Developmental Psychology. This part focuses on the thorough understanding of what developmental psychology is there are discussions as to how it may be understood and researched, as well as information on the ethical considerations that have to be taken into notice when one is conducting an analysis of psychological development (Shaffer  Kipp, 2010).

This part of the book also presents several theories regarding it developmental psychology, such as the psychoanalytic viewpoint, learning viewpoint, the cognitive-developmental viewpoint, the ethological and evolutionary viewpoints, and the ecological systems viewpoint. These aforementioned theories have each had major impacts on the science of human development (Shaffer  Kipp, 2010, p. 42) which makes it necessary to understand them.

The second part of the book is Part II Biological Foundations of Development this part consists of the various psychological factors which can affect development, such as heredity, prenatal development, infancy, and the development of the individuals body, with focus on the development of the brain, the body, various motor skills, as well as sexual development (Shaffer  Kipp, 2010).

The following part of the book is Part III Cognitive Development. This discusses the other theories regarding psychological development which are the Piagets Theory and Vygotskys Sociocultural Viewpoint. This part also has a chapter on how the information-processing part of an individuals brain works, as well as chapters on intelligence and the development of language and communication skills (Shaffer  Kipp, 2010, p. 387).

Following this part is Part IV Social and Personality Development. This part of the book discusses how the various emotions develop, as well as how attachment and temperament works. There is also a chapter regarding the development of an individuals Self and the development of social cognition. Apart from these, there are also discussion regarding how developing individuals know sex differences and how they are able to construe their gender-roles. This part also brings into focus the various psychological developments regarding morality, aggression and altruism (Shaffer  Kipp, 2010).

Finally, the last chapter of the book Part V The Context of Development discusses the various external factors which can affect the development of an individual. It is stated that parents, peers, school, and even television can highly influence the psychological development of an individual (Shaffer  Kipp, 2010).

Relation to Course
This book is related to the course because the courses description states that the course involves the discussion of child growth and development. Apart from this, the course description also states that the course aims to analyze the psychological, biological, socioeconomic and cultural aspects of the individuals developmental process.

The information which the course aims to discuss may be derived from the book apart from this, the book can provide a good introduction regarding child growth and development, for it tackles the various psychological developments that occur in a human being from infancy to adolescence.
If one is to break down the course description, it will be seen that David Shaffers  Katherine Kipps Developmental Psychology Childhood and Adolescence provides most of the information which the course aims to explain and analyze. The first one is the psychological aspect of the developmental process the book, in a whole, aims to analyze psychological development, and it is given that it will be able to provide the first aspect of the course description. The book contains a thorough discussion of developmental psychology, cognitive development, personality development, and social development, all of which are related to the psychological development of an individual.

The second is the biological aspect of the course. This aspect is also discussed in Shaffers  Kipps book, for they have dedicated Part II Biological Foundations of Development for this discussion. The book has given an explanation of how an individuals biological or physiological development can affect his or her psychological development, and this information is vital to the biological aspect of this course.

Another aspect of the course description is the cultural aspect of the developmental process. This is tackled in Part IV Social and Personality Development, wherein the authors discuss how attachment and other developmental states can vary depending on the individuals culture. Also the cultural aspect of psychological development may also be found in Part V The Context of Development, for this is where the authors discuss the various external factors which can greatly affect the development of an individual.

However, it is necessary to state that while the book may be able to provide the aforementioned information, it does not provide anything regarding how socioeconomic aspects or factors can affect a human beings psychological development. It is, then, important to state that this book may be related to the course and may provide useful information, but it does not encompass everything which the course attempts to cover.

Opinion
David Shaffers  Katherine Kipps Developmental Psychology Childhood and Adolescence is a recommended book for the course for it is able to provide most of the information which the course aims to tackle. The book contains thorough descriptions and discussions which can aid the reader throughout the process of understanding the concept of psychological development.
Apart from this, the book can provide various benefits to psychologists, pediatricians, day-care workers, teachers, nurses, and even to parents. Not to mention that the book can help students whom are taking up Childhood Studies, Child Psychology and Education to fully understand the psychological development of children.

Also, the book is written in a conversational format (written with a language structure which speaks to the reader) and this manner of presentation of information encourages a thorough understanding of the principles regarding the development of children and adolescents. Since the book is in a conversational format, it does not complicate things for individuals whom are not well-versed in the field of psychology even if they are not in the field of psychology, they may be able to understand how the mind of a developing child works.

Apart from this, the book enables the reader to gain the knowledge which is necessary not only to understand developing individuals, but also knowledge which will enable the reader to be able to appropriately influence the life and development of children and adolescents. This information is very powerful, for it will enable people to understand and decipher how a child thinks and they may be able to interact with the child in an appropriate manner (e.g. when the child is crying because he or she misses their parents, it can be explained with the concept of attachment).

It is also necessary to stress that since the book is not intended merely for the consumption of experts and professionals within the field. As seen in the aforementioned paragraph, the book not only speaks to psychologists, nurses, and pediatricians, but also to day-care workers, teachers, and most importantly, the book also speaks to parents. This is very important because the book will enable parents (whom are major external influences to an individuals development) to aid their children throughout their psychological development.

David Shaffers  Katherine Kipps Developmental Psychology Childhood and Adolescence is not only a great contribution to the field of psychology but also the field of literature, for it not merely aims to communicate with the professionals, but also with individuals from other fields of expertise. Although the book does not encompass all aspects of psychological development, it is able to provide the reader with the vital information regarding the fact that psychological development is a fragile state, and it should be addressed appropriately in order for the developing individual to progress through life as a fully-functional human being.