Psychology

Definition
Sleepwalking is a psychological disorder most common in young children and adolescents (Alvarado, 1998). It is characterized by a person walking or doing another activity while he or she is technically asleep (Alvarado, 1998). Non-comprehensive vocalizations might happen, but the sleepwalker often maintains a vague blank look on the face.

Causes of Sleepwalking
The exact cause of sleepwalking in young children has not yet been established but psychological research points out that fatigue, lack of enough sleep and general anxiety could be the causes (University of Maryland Medical Center, 2002). In adults, sleepwalking is commonly associated with mental disorders, depressive illnesses, reaction to alcohol and drug abuse or medical conditions such as partial complex seizures (University of Maryland Medical Center, 2002). When it occurs in elderly people, it may be a symptom of a brain syndrome or Rapid Eye Movement (REM) disorders. A genetic connection has been identified with sleepwalking.

Symptoms
When people sleepwalk, they usually get up while still in get slumber and walk around while looking like they are actually awake (University of Maryland Medical Center, 2002). A sleepwalker will often unconsciously undertake complex routines like rearranging furniture, cooking, dressing, undressing or even driving. If undisturbed, a sleepwalker will usually go back to sleep, even if on a different location. He or she will not remember the sleepwalking episode after finally waking up, and will act aggressively if woken in the middle of it.

Treatment
Most victims of the sleepwalking disorder do not need specific treatment since it is not a serious disorder (University of Maryland Medical Center, 2002). It is however important to put in place safety mechanisms like moving live cables or obstacles when a sleepwalker is in the house. It is not dangerous to wake a sleepwalker.

Adults who exhibit the disorder should avoid alcohol or any other substances that depress the central nervous system. It is also necessary to avoid fatigue and to prevent insomnia as well as any causes of stress, anxiety and conflict (Alvarado, 1998).

Counselling may be defined as therapy through talk and expression of feelings and thoughts. Rogers (2007, p. 85) defines counselling as a relationship between two people in a democratic atmosphere of understanding and respect, and that most counselling sessions fail because of the failure to establish such a relationship. A counsellor listens to a clients needs, responds appropriately and mediates to achieve the outcomes that the client desires. Counselling skills are more of an art than a science and should be combined with genuine concern and empathy for the patients and their families. Skills such as listening and reflecting cannot be taught and can only be acquired through experience and a genuine desire to help another person.  It is different from plain communication because counselling requires some form of action afterwards in the hopes of positive change. (Nelson-Jones 2005, p. 19) As such, counsellors must always be vigilant against imposing their own personal value systems and be reflective in their practice, constantly monitoring for personal reactions and thoughts that might mar the therapy (Rennie 1998, p. 5).

Among the most basic of counselling skills include the ability to make effective and positive communication with the client and for the client to be, regardless of the context with which the counseling is being sought (Sanders 1996, p. 4). Anybody can use counseling skills to help another person, but counselling is formal, with specific goals and outcomes. It is also bound within certain contract of ethical practices of confidentiality and professionalism. (Bond 2000, p. 33)

Counsellors must take a holistic or client-centred approach in order to keep their clients highly functional in spite of their emotional and mental impairments. By employing a client-centered approach, counsellors are thus able to design a program that is tailor-made to adapt to the individuals unique needs and circumstances and this can only be achieved by nurturing a relationship that encourages open communication, communication wherein clients are willing to bare their innermost fears and emotions (Feltham 1999, p. 24). 

Counsellors provide for their clients needs by lessening their disabilities and  dependency, while advocating for the dignity of the person as human beings, regardless of age, gender, race, sexuality, social class, education, lifestyle, and religious or political beliefs. In simple terms it means that in a counselling relationship, the expertise of the counsellor takes a backseat behind the patients needs. Counsellors must serve to facilitate instead of dictate, and thus create a democratic atmosphere where the counsellor and client are engaged on equal ground (Barrett-Lennard 1998, p. 53).

The Dignity of Self and the Roles of the Counsellor
As far as counseling is concerned, the main task of the counselor is to facilitate the self-discovery and to empower the client to make positive choices that would change her or her life for the better. (White, 2007) Much of the job of a counselor is all about uplifting the individuals sense of personhood and helps the client claim that sense of personal responsibility and empowerment. (Morgenstern, 2007) Of course this can only be achieved by subscribing to the core conditions of counseling. First, counseling can only be achieved with direct, personal and psychological contact second, that the client is assumed to be in a state of vulnerability or weakness that requires outside intervention or help third, that the therapist is the stable factor in the relationship and thus provides the anchor for the relationship to progress and achieve its goals fourth, the counselor of therapist has sincere benevolent feelings for the client irrespective of their differences in values and beliefs, fifth, that the therapist has a genuine understanding or empathy for where the client is coming from or the clients frame of reference and last, that the positive feelings of the therapist towards the client is made known and clearly felt by the client. (Barrett-Lennard 1998, p 86)

In the end, the main task of a counselor is to be able to help the person feel empowered. Rather than making the individual feel helpless, the best counselors give their clients the sense of control and decision over their own lives. (Choi  Ryan, 2007) As much as possible, the counselor must leave very little footprints in their clients lives because the guidance that they give creates an empowered individual capable of self-determination and self-actualization. The journey towards liberation is not solely the clients responsibility alone. While ultimately the choice to do so is in the client, such a choice cannot be arrived at without the counselors help (Prout  Brown 2007, p. 223).  Indeed the job of a counselor requires extraordinary people skills because it involves the treatment of an emotional malady, which is already complex all by itself. The counselor must be cognizant of the many issues that can sometimes get in the way of the proper dispensing of counselling and therapy.

The Personal Counsellor
Holistic caring also involves treatment and management programs that are based on the context of larger socio-political issues that affect the provision and delivery of health and social services. Holistic care refers to the idea that counselors should not only address the health care needs of the patient, but look at the patient as a whole person, whose health needs are closely related to his or her emotional, sociocultural, spiritual, and psychological condition. Holistic care is characterized by an individualised care plan, one that is custom made for the patient and her unique circumstances. As counselors, caring for the whole person ensures health and complete well-being. Sensitive caring in the context of holistic nursing practice is the best predictor of patient satisfaction.

How then a therapist should perceive a client Frankfurt (1971, p. 6) defines a person as a creature with the capacity to fulfill needs and desires in ways that indicate free will and reasoning. The person is able to identify these needs and desires and acts in deliberation and free will in order to achieve such desires. The person, acting in such capacity, is fully aware of the motivations that lead him or her to such actions. A person is a unique creature and stands apart from other animals because humans have the ability to deliberate on desires and make the appropriate choices and actions based on their free will. The persons free will and reasoning enables him to make appropriate actions and whether to repress these desires or pursue its fulfillment. Unlike animals that are driven by instinct and basal needs, a person has the ability to exercise his free will and reason and make a choice on what actions to take. Raz (2006, p. 3) elevates the concept of personhood further to emphasize the role of reason in the exercise of free will. Raz maintains that it is reason that determines if an individual is truly using his free will or not. Given a variety of desires and needs, the person, guided by reason, decides on what desires to act on, if at all. The choices are based on the individuals ability to evaluate and prioritize desires and recognize motivations and ascribe to them values of right and wrong. (Watson, 1987, p. 217) All these things, a counselor must keep in mind to best provide the help needed.

The success of a counsellor-client relationship is dependent upon mutual trust and respect. Of course, the therapeutic relationship between counsellor and client is unique because of the dynamic of power that exists between the two. Given the nature of therapeutic situations, patients often feel helpless, emotional, and rarely have time to deliberate their decisions. Control and power is perceived to be in the hands of professionals such as counsellors, whose decisions can decide matters of that have profound effects of a persons quality of life. There is always an imbalance of power in a counsellor-client relationship (Feltham 1999, p. 9) and it is so easy to fall into a dictatorial relationship. As such, counsellors should demonstrate sensitivity, empathy, and they should exhaust all means to make patients feel that they control their decisions, especially decisions regarding their own body and their life.

The perception of power is based on the counsellors clinical and professional expertise and the ability to help a patient in distress. By virtue of their education and experience, counsellors are thus able to provide care and healing services to patients. Counsellors themselves do not make claim to that power, it exists naturally when patients seek their help and expertise. 

When there is an imbalance in power, then it is but natural to assume that patients or clients put their trust in the power of counsellors and other health care professionals to give them the assistance that they need. Therefore it is very important that counsellors live up to this trust and the responsibilities of power. To do so, counsellors must have the competencies and skills needed to provide therapeutic services. This is the reason why minimum standards of competencies and education are required before counsellors become clinical practitioners. Of course it is not enough that counsellors pass standardized exams they must constantly engage in learning as newer, better modalities of practice come to light. An important part of this knowledge is the ability to acknowledge limitations and the willingness to seek help from other professionals in order to provide the client with the best possible care. The power to help necessitates the ability to ask for help as well if it means saving a life or improving the quality of life of patients.

Another important element of trust is the expectation of professional conduct. Counsellors are expected to behave within a certain code of conduct as prescribed by their profession. This includes the provision that counsellors are expected to at all time maintain appropriate professional boundaries in and therapeutic relationships with clients, and that all activities and discussion are related to the health needs of the patient. This includes the implicit agreement that all exchanges between client and counselor are confidential and that such confidentiality cannot be breached, unless the client becomes a danger to himself or to another person. It is only within these strict provisions can confidentiality between client and counselor be broken. The law generally protects such confidentiality, but will also uphold the need to break it. (Jenkins 1997, p. 128)

Another component of a counsellor-client relationship is respect. A big part of respect is the ability to suspend any form of judgment and focus on the clinical task at hand. Whether we agree or not, counsellors are also prone to passing judgement, especially since they are not the ones facing the illness. What is important is that these judgements and feelings should not be allowed to affect the counsellors clinical decisions. Often counsellors are preoccupied with dispensing their duties and addressing the specific mental and emotional needs of the client, that they have the tendency to forget to consider the whole patient.

Indeed a therapeutic relationship is highly focused and purposeful. The centre of all endeavours is the achievement of therapeutic goals. A big part of this relationship is the ability to use positive communication to achieve such ends. For a therapeutic communication be successful, counsellors must be able to present themselves in a manner that is professional and credible. A big part of communication in a therapeutic relationship is non-verbal or based on actions. Normal communication is not always possible depending on the situation of the client, and counsellors must be able to explore other avenues of communication without diminishing the essence of the message. Patients constantly judge counsellors based on their manner and character, and a therapeutic relationship can only be established if the patient feels comfortable with the counsellor. To do, counsellors must convey a sense of warmth and genuine concern, framed within a professional demeanor (Clark 2007, p. 47).

In light of all these things, it is therefore important that counsellors have a solid sense of self before they can present themselves properly to their clients and establish a successful therapeutic relationship. All of the previous elements are based on the counsellors intimate knowledge of themselves and see their duties as counsellors in the context of the clients experiences. Of course counsellors must judgments on clinical knowledge. However, as Carper (1978) argues in her work, there are other forms of knowing apart from clinical or scientific knowledge, and these other forms of learning have equal weight and importance in this profession. It is not enough that counsellors are trained in the science of therapy and psychology. Equally important, perhaps even more so when dealing with disturbed individuals, is that counsellors have the emotional sensitivity to gain the trust of their patients and make them feel that their counsellors only have their best interests at heart.

Indeed the ability to listen and respond to human distress are attributes that humanity must have in order to survive. Such attributes are especially essential in therapy as well, especially for counsellors who are front liners in providing care that makes a direct impact of the lives of people. Of course professional knowledge is a given, but in order for this to be of any help to anyone, counsellors must have the sense of self that will help them maneuver through different kinds of situations and navigate a successful and effective therapeutic relationship.

Schizophrenia
The Columbia Encyclopedia describes schizophrenia as a group of severe life long mental disorders characterized by distortion in reality perception and expression (2009). Schizophrenia may be manifested by hallucinations, paranoia, delusions, thought disorders, and disorganized behavior. There is no clear relationship between the emotions of a patient and the thoughts, and it has hence been referred to as split personality (The Colombia Encyclopedia, 2009). Schizophrenia can occur in various types such as paranoid, catatonic, and disorganized among others (Mayo clinic, 2010)

The causes of the condition are unknown but according to Mayo clinic (2010), an interaction of genetic and environmental aspects may lead to development of the condition. Mayo clinic adds that problems with glutamate and dopamine neurotransmitters may also contribute to the disease.
The cognitive problems involved in schizophrenia are as a result of complications with thought processes. The cognitive component of the condition is the most disabling as it affects the ability of the person to perform the basic daily tasks. According to Mayo clinic, the disabling cognitive symptoms include memory problems, inability to pay and maintain attention, and problems processing information.
The schizophrenic behavior ranges from unpredictable, strange to violent and suicidal (Mayo clinic, 2010). As the clinic notes, the odd behavior may be as a result of delusional beliefs.

Affectively, the condition can lead to depression and mood swing. Their odd behavior causes other people to avoid schizophrenic persons which lead to emotional and social isolation.

Psychosis
Psychosis is a broad psychiatric term that refers to a mental state characterized by loss of contact with reality, accompanied by delusions and hallucinations (Ellwood, 1995). Like schizophrenia, psychosis is a condition of the mind. However, unlike schizophrenia, the causes of psychosis are always clear. Ellwood notes that it is different from neurosis in that psychosis refers to a more serious state of mind whereby an individual is unable to function properly (1995).

Stahl (2000) notes that psychosis is a syndrome made up of a combination of symptoms that can be associated with many different psychiatric disorders. Stahl adds that the diagnostic schemes do not recognize psychosis as a specific disorder in itself. Some of the causes of psychosis include alcohol and drugs, dementia, brain tumors, brain diseases and chromosomal disorders, sleep deprivation, HIV, epilepsy, stroke, and other infections that affect the brain (Stahl, 2000).

Ellwood notes that like schizophrenia, psychosis is characterized by incoherent speech, unpredictable and often dangerous behavior, and disorganized thoughts (1995). She further notes that psychotic individuals are always detached as a result of their inability to express their emotions. In addition, they are usually depressed with mood swings.

Stahl notes that although the condition may not be permanent, the hallucinations and delusions make the person unable to process information and retain attention and this affects their ability to perform basic activities. Their behavior is more violent and unpredictable. Due to the many causes of psychosis, treatment is based on the cause. However, Stahl notes that cognitive behavior and family therapy may be effective.

Lifespan Development
Lifespan development involves the systematic changes and continuities that occur during life of a person. According to Sigelman and Rider (2008), the changes and continuities could be gains, losses or neutral in the physical, psychological, and cognitive functioning. The process begins at conception and ends at death. According to Sugarman (2001), lifespan development is methodical, intra-individual changes that are associated with advancing of age.

In order to understand lifespan development, the life of a person is separate into four stages infancy, childhood, adolescence, and adulthood (Sigelman and Rider, 2008) or developmental stages childhood and adolescence, early adulthood, mid-adulthood, and late adulthood (Sugarman, 2001). Each of this stage involves changes in the biology, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral aspects.

Sigelman and Rider (2008) point out that the development is a life-long and multi-directional. They note that it involves both the gains and losses. In each of the four stages of life, Sigelman and Rider note that people gain some aspects and lose others and it is not always true that what is gained during childhood is lost during the later years. They add that, the development is accompanied by life-long plasticity that enables people to respond to environmental influences.

Santrock (2008) points out that the Piagets theory of cognitive development explains how people acquire the intelligence to adapt to the environment. Stanrock points out that the theory has four stages and at each stage, intelligence is different. The stages identified are the Sensorimotor Stage, Pre-Operational Period, Concrete Operation Stage, and the Formal Operational Stage.

I remember having a carefree and joyful childhood among several uncles, aunts, grand parents and parents. I remember the playful times that lasted for days at a stretch with my cousins. There was always one of the several  older cousins ready  to help me with my studies and the homework. Dinner time was a noisy and delightful occasion where a big group of us would enjoy anything being served. Bed time meant wonderful stories told by grandfather or grandmother  Having been born in an extended family in Vietnam, I had a very pleasant childhood. But of course there were some not so good times too for instance when a big box of chocolates still meant only one each . Our parents would not buy anything and everything that we asked for, as it meant that the other children would be dissatisfied.  A new set of clothes , however strongly desired, would be purchased only for a special occasion or a festival. Getting a toy meant having to share it too

From such an extended family, we had to move out of the country as my fathers job required it to be so. We had to literally break away from the  family bonds and set up a nuclear ( broken part of the ) family in a far away country. Initially we found ourselves lost. We had no elders to whom we could turn to for our guidance. The wisdom and experience of the family elders which was so easily and freely available earlier was not to be found. Parents were busy trying to make decisions and make us more comfortable. Every small issue seemed to a big hurdle to tide over. Slowly we got used to this life style and started enjoying its advantages. A requests to parents  for a new toy or a box of chocolates or a new dress would be met almost immediately. Sharing of chocolates and goodies was on a much lower key  We started gloating in the undue attention of our parents. But as we grew up we found that the bonding in the extended family was not there and we had to constantly make an effort to keep the family together. We became less adjusting  and more independent. Tolerance was conspicuous by its absence Both my parents and we the children, were becoming  less patient and  living in a big group slowly started becoming very difficult. Our individualistic thinking gave us some predominance in the society and our personal achievements remained so .We had freedom from the traditions which were strictly followed in the joint family. But it also meant that festivities were listless days with lots of good food and clothes and nothing to celebrate. The gaiety was missing on such occasions. We got our individual identities  but lost a part of ourselves back home.

So as a person who has seen both sides of the grass, I strongly am inclined  to the advantages of a joint family. It nurtures a person into a wholesome and one who is capable of caring and sharing.  The love and respect shown towards all the other members of the family seemed to be too vague to imagine. The nuclear family was a bonding only between the parents and their children. Despite some distinct disadvantages the extended family would be my choice any day and in any place.

When one thinks of a child, one may instantly think of the idea of play as with when one thinks of an adult, one would logically think of work. During early childhood, the skills and development that has happened during the first three years of life makes great advances. The changes that happen are more of refinement of the basic skills. Simple as play may seem, it actually contributes much to a childs physical health and development.

During early childhood, there are great advances in both motor gross motor and fine motors skills). Gross motor skills are activities that make use of large muscle groups such as those involved in running or jumping. Sensorimotor areas in the brain develop and permit better coordination between what children would like to be able to do and what they are actually able to do. During this stage, bones and muscles are stronger and lung capacity grows, making room for a child to be able to do more physical activity (Papalia, Olds  Feldman, 2004, p.232-233). Activities that develop large muscle groups usually require little to no equipment much like tag, kickball, playing on the playground and hopscotch (Rees).  Fine motor skills on the other hand involve small muscle groups like those in the eyes and hands (Papalia, Olds  Feldman, 2004, p.233). Activities that develop the smaller muscle groups usually take form in arts and crafts, and improve dexterity (Rees). Advances in fine motor skills let young children take more responsibility for self-care.

With most, if not all development for early childhood, learning and practice opportunities come in the form of play. However, not all development is equal among children. Children differ in skills not only in terms of how gifted they are with their genes but also with how many opportunities they are given to learn and practice motor skills. Children must be given due opportunities to play because it caters to their senses, muscles and learning. Without play, a childs development would be greatly compromised.

This paper is an analysis of three theories of career development. The theories are Hollands theory, Supers theory, and Albert Banduras Social Cognitive Theory. This paper includes a description of each theory and their comparisons, as well as analysis and implications.


Career Development Theories
Introduction
In the present society, finding an effective career seems to be a difficult goal to achieve. When one is one the way to finding a career, he may encounter problems as to which career would match his skills and interests. Usually, a person is defined by what he does. It is called career identity (Overview, n.d.). Thus, it is the job of the career counselor to help individuals find jobs which will make them productive in the best of their abilities. Career development becomes a process, wherein individuals understand their career potentials towards achieving a career identity.

This paper discusses three career development theories. It involves a comparison of these theories and integration, concerning how these can be helpful to clients in finding a suitable career.

Hollands Theory
One of the most widely used theories by career counselors are the one created by John Holland called Hollands Theory. Lawrence K. Jones wrote an article discussing this theory entitled, What Color Are Your Feathers (2010). In his article, he defined Hollands theory through the statement Birds of the same feather flock together. (3). Holland defined six personality types in his theory. They are Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional. He believed that people with the same personality types tend to stick together. For example, musicians would attach themselves to fellow musicians, writers would make friends with other writes, and businessmen would surround themselves with business associates. These people also tend to create an environment that would suite their personality type and induce their work performance. Just the same, there are also six environment types, which are Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional. People who belong to environments that are similar to their personality types, would most likely to experience satisfaction and success in their work (3).

Donald Supers Theory
One of the goals of an individual is to be able to develop and implement his own self concept. His establishment of a self concept leads the way into a more stable vocational choice and behavior. As vocational choice is related with a persons stage of development, his career maturity is developed (Overview, n.d.). Such is the theory of Donald Super.

Supers theory is called developmental self-concept theory. The greatest significance of his theory to career development is his emphasis on developing a self-concept. According to Super, our experiences result to the development and change of our self-concept. He was able to come up with stages of development, wherein our competencies change as our experiences change. He argued that this becomes a cycle every time one changes his career (Donald, n.d.).

Banduras Social Cognitive Theory
According to Albert Bandura, one should believe in his own capabilities in order to take control of his thoughts, feelings and actions. This is called self efficacy. This is the main idea of Banduras social cognitive theory, which focuses on creating a self system (Overview, n.d.). Bandura explained that self efficacy determines a persons coping skills, how much efforts will a job take, and for how long this effort will hold up in the face of difficulties. He also made use of four essential sources of self efficacy. One is personal performance, which is basically ones previous accomplishment. The second is vicarious experiences or those taken from watching others. The third is verbal persuasion or basically, an encouragement, and the fourth is psychological or emotional factors (5).

Albert Bandura pointed out the difference between self esteem and self efficacy. He defines self esteem as a persons self worth, while self efficacy as a persons belief in his abilities (5).

In an article written by John Inman entitled, Social Cognitive Theory, A Synthesis, he explained that there are four methods or strategies in order to develop efficacy (n.d.). The first strategy is to develop mastery (4). It is important that one must be able to find ways of learning. The second is imitation. This is closely related to modeling. The third one is modeling, which accelerates learning by providing a model to imitate. According to Bandura, Fortunately, most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling from observing others one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action (5).

Analysis
The three theories mentioned in this essay are three of the most significant in the field of career development. These contribute greatly in molding the human persons capabilities and skills, which will help him in establishing his career. All these theories focused on skills and learning. In Hollands theory, he mentioned of set of environments where persons with the same personalities can be productive. In Supers theory, he emphasized on the changes of peoples roles over time. Bandura made use of learning as a tool in achieving development. All these theories basically focused on productivity or development.

The theories have different methods in accomplishing career development. One is focused on the environment another is focused on stages and the other is focused on learning. If these were used all in one counseling session, then there would be a holistic perspective as to discovering a persons capabilities and in finding him a suitable career.  They are all related in a sense that however different the perspectives, they all come down to one goal, which is to achieve career development.

This paper is a literature review regarding the development of adolescents and the factors affecting them. It discusses the latest studies and trends in the field of adolescent psychology and aims to find out how these studies contribute to the development of the said field. AdolescentAdult Development A Literature Review

Introduction
In the process of human development, every person must undergo stages where each of these stages occurs with a significant moment in life. A number of psychologist and sociologists have presented their own stages of human development. In all of these models, one stage emerges to be unchanged, which is adolescence.

Adolescence is a period of physical and psychological change which develops from the onset of puberty to complete growth and maturity. This period begins at around the age of 11 to 13 years of age. This is also a time of the emergence of secondary sex characteristics. The period ends at ages 18 to 20 with completion towards the adult form (Adolescence, n.d.).

In the field of psychology, adolescence has become a widely recognized phenomenon. This has led to the establishment of a separate class of psychologists which deals with issues regarding adolescence. This period consists of a lot of changes and issues in almost all aspects of an individual. Issues included in adolescent psychology include maturity in the body, which leads individuals to be curious about their sexuality. This is also a period where exploration to drug and alcohol use is imminent. Adolescence is so complex that cerebral problems such as schizophrenia, eating disorders, and depression have high risks to occur during this stage. It is also a period of searching, where individuals attempt to find themselves in their peer groups. It is observed that 90 percent of adolescents tend to associate themselves with a peer group. Thus, those who are successful in establishing peer relationships have the least chance of experiencing anxiety and depression (Emerson, 2006).

Because of the complexity of the period of adolescence, it is necessary that studies be conducted on how the said issues arise. This may lead to finding solutions to these issues and further understand the nature of adolescents in different areas such as psychology. Thus, this paper consists of a review of literature regarding adolescent development. This paper also aims to determine the latest trend in this field of study and give brighter insights as to the development of adolescence.

Adolescence and Their Parents
Parenting has a very significant effect towards the outcome of developing adolescents. In a study conducted by Alithe L van den Akker, Maja Dekovic, and Peter Prinzie, they explored how changes in child personality and over reactive parenting can predict adolescent adjustment problems. They observed changes in the Big Five personality characteristics during transition from childhood to adolescence in terms of adjustment problems. 290 children aged eight to nine years were the sample in the study. The study consisted of three measurement moments with 2-year intervals for data gathering. On the first moment, they gathered reports from mothers, fathers, and a teacher regarding the childs personality. The mother and the fathers reported about their parenting behaviors on the second moment. At the third measurement moment, mothers, fathers, and children reported in the childs adjustment problems.

Results of their study showed that changes in child personality and over reactive parenting during the transition from childhood to adolescence are associated with adolescent adjustment problems. Also, child personality was more significant than over reactive parenting. Furthermore, results show that children are more likely to act out in reaction to over reacting parenting, rather than to withdraw (Van Den Akker, at al, 2010).

Adolescents and Their Environment
A large part of the human personality is influenced by the environment. It was mentioned earlier that adolescents are experiencing a period of searching for their identities through peer groups. Such groups can be found in school or in their very own neighborhoods.

A study entitled, Neighborhood Influences on Adolescent Cigarette and Alcohol Use Mediating Effects through Parent and Peer Behaviors aimed to determine a relationship between neighborhoods and adolescent and cigarette and alcohol use through parental closeness, parental monitoring, parent substance use, and peer substance use. The researchers used a national sample consisting of 959 adolescents, with ages ranging from twelve to fourteen years old, using structural equation models.

Results of the study showed that smoking adolescents who live in low socioeconomic status (SES) neighborhoods were associated with increased parental monitoring, and was further associated with decreased adolescent cigarette use. For drinking adolescents, high SES neighborhoods were associated with increased parent drinking, and was further associated with increased adolescent alcohol use. Drinking adolescents in low SES neighborhoods with high parental monitoring are associated with decreased adolescent alcohol use, while those with increase in peer drinking are associated with increased adolescent alcohol use (Chuang, et al, 2005).

Neighborhoods were also the primary focus of Jeanne Gunn, Greg Duncan, Pamela Klebanov, and Naomi Sealand in their study on child and adolescent development. Neighbors are commonly believed to influence behavior and attitudes. Their study aimed to explore the effects of neighborhood characteristics on the development of children and adolescents. They used two data sets. Each of these data sets contains information gathered regarding individual children, their families, and their neighbors.

Results of their study showed that neighborhoods have a very powerful effect on adolescent development, especially the presence of wealthy neighbors. These effects are manifested in childhood IQ, teenage births, and school-leaving. It was found out that these effects are still evident even after the differences in socioeconomic characteristics of families are adjusted for. However, it was also found out that the presence of wealthy neighbors benefit white teenagers more than black teenagers (Brooks-Gunn, et al, 1993).

Adolescents and Sexuality
Sexual activity is an important indicator of transition from childhood to adolescence. In this period, individuals begin to explore the sexual aspect of their lives because of the changes that are undergoing in their bodies.

A study on adolescents and sexuality was conducted by Renata Forste and David Haas entitled, The Transition of Adolescent Males to First Sexual Intercourse Anticipated or delayed The concept of this study is taken from different social, psychological and behavioral contexts in adolescents initiating in sexual activity. This broadens the understanding of teenage sexual behavior, apart from the typical sexual experience, as contrasted against inexperience.

The data for this study was taken from the National Survey of Adolescent Males in 1988, 1990, and 1991, and were used in logistic regression analysis to determine the influence of background factors on the transition to adolescence to the first intercourse. These teenagers were divided into two categories. One of which are those who were not expecting to initiate in sexual activity in the next year (delayers), consisting of 265 teenagers, and 187 of those who are expecting to do so (anticipators).

Results show that 32 of delayers reasoned out that their sexual inexperience was because they want to wait until marriage. 35 of anticipators reported that it was the lack of opportunity to engage in sexual activity. 53 of anticipators were more likely to have their first intercourse within one year of the survey than delayers with 13. These anticipators were also prone to risky behaviors, precoital activities and approval for premarital sex. On the other hand, delayers were more likely to go to church and have strict parents. Teenagers who have a mother who is a college graduate increases the chance for transition to first intercourse for anticipators but decreased chances for delayers. Teenagers who were born by their mothers during their teen age significantly increased the chances for anticipators (Forste, et al, 2002).

Conclusions
Adolescence is an important stage in life. It is a transition from childhood to teenage, which is a gateway towards adulthood. It is a complicated stage wherein numerous changes occur, not just in the physical aspect but in the sociological and psychological aspects of individuals.

A separate class of psychologists has already been established in order to study further the phenomena involved in adolescence. A number of studies have already been conducted in regards to the factors that have an effect on the transition of childhood towards adolescence. Teenagers are easily affected by external factors such as their neighborhood, their families, peers, and others. These studies have led to the conclusion that there is still a lot to be studied with regards to adolescence, particularly on the possible factors that have an effect on its transition and development. Future studies on this topic would open new doors in the field of adolescent psychology and the understanding of adolescence and their behavior.