Psychology

This paper involves different literature regarding sleep on the consolidation of memories. It discusses different articles citing the significance of sleep in the improvement of the different aspects of memory. It also includes an integration of all literature and studies mentioned.

Importance of Sleep on the Consolidation of Memories
Introduction
What is sleep According to a medical website,  Sleep is triggered by a complex group of hormones that are active in the main, and that respond to cues from the body itself and the environment  ( Definition , n.d.). Roughly 10 hours of sleep is recommended for children while 8 hours are needed by an average adult person. According to Michel Billiard and Angela Kent, sleep has fascinated man for centuries. It is part of the human life cycle. They referred to it as  an escape from the daily hardships of life, a mysterious state, where gods may communicate with man  (2003). It is a mystery for the very question of why we sleep still remains unanswered (3).

It is important for every human to sleep. In fact, sleep has many advantages. Benefits of sleep cover almost every aspect of human life. Sleep helps repair the body. During sleep, the body produces extra protein molecules, repairing damaged tissues and relieving stress. Sleep also takes care of the heart by reducing its levels of stress and inflammation. It also helps in the consolidation of memories ( The Benefits , 2008).

Sleep and Memory
In an article entitled Sleep, Memory, and Plasticity, the importance of sleep on the consolidation of memory is discussed (Walker et al., 2006). The article is basically a review of different findings regarding the role of sleep in memory encoding, memory consolidation, brain plasticity, and memory reconsolidation. According to them, the hypothesis of sleep having to do with memory development was unheard of until the time of the discovery of rapid-eye movement (REM) and non-rapid-eye movement (NREM) sleep in 1953.

In the past, studies have shown that after information has been recalled, memory returns to an unstable state, thus requiring consolidation or reconsolidation (Walker et al., 2006). Basically, these studies have conceptualised the consolidation of memory into at least four processes. These processes are reactivation, leading to destabilisation, which leads to either degradation of reconsolidation. In the article of Walker et al., they have hypothesised that the processes of degradation and reconsolidation must happen in the period of sleep.

In 2002, a study was conducted regarding the effect of sleep on memory for finger skills. The study was conducted by Stefan Fischer, Manfred Hallschmid, Anna Lisa Elsner, and Jan Born. They explained that when practicing a motor skill, a process of memory consolidation is triggered, which continues on even the practice has ended. More interestingly, the skills improved after a later testing.
Fifty-two participants were involved in the experiment. These participants were healthy with no experience of any form of sleep disturbance. Also, none of them had an experience in playing a musical instrument or in typing. The experimenters made use of a finger-to-thumb position task that followed a sequence. The participants were tasked to perform this without looking at their hands. Their performances were recorded before and after sleep. Results from the correlation coefficients showed that there was an increase in the performance of the participants who had high amounts of REM sleep.

According to David N. Neubauer,  Forgetfulness is a common complaint of people who do not get enough sleep, whether it is due to sleep deprivation from an overly busy schedule or the result of insomnia.  (2009). In his article entitled,  Sleep and Memory , he explained that there are plenty of evidence supporting the conclusion that post-learning sleep consolidates both declarative and procedural memory (20). He further stated that sleep can stabilise memory, making it more resistant to interference from other learning tasks, generally improving memory tasks. He continued, saying,  Night time sleep significantly improves memory test performance, but even daytime naps following learning tasks offer subjects benefits compared to individuals tested after the same intervening period without sleep  (20).

Another experiment was conducted by Steffen Gais, Werner Plihal, Ullrich Wagner and Jan Born regarding the effect of sleep on memory (2000). The experiment involves practicing visual texture discrimination. To establish the effect of sleep in the task at hand, they compared performances between after an early sleep and after a late sleep, which is dominated by slow wave and rapid-eye movement sleep. It showed that the improvement of the task is dependent on sleep. Results showed that improvement on visual texture discrimination was evident after early sleep, even more after a whole night sleep, but did not show any improvement after late sleep alone. The results of the experiment suggested that procedural memory formation is prompted by sleep-related processes. It also suggested that late REM sleep may improve memory formation but only at a second stage, after two periods of early sleep.

The same conclusions were concluded by a study made by Steffen Gais1, Brian Lucas, and Jan Born. They performed two experiments, which suggest that sleep has a persisting effect on hippocampus-dependent declarative memory (2006).

In the first experiment, they investigated whether sleep within a few hours of learning in the evening enhances the consolidation of memory. Twelve American high school students participated in the four-condition experiment. For each condition, the participants learned one of 24-pair English-German vocabulary lists with a limit of 10 minutes. The results showed a significant difference among the number of forgotten words between the morning-learning condition and the evening-learning condition. The participants in the morning-learning condition got the most number of forgotten words than in the evening-learning condition.

The second experiment determined if this evening-learning condition could be attributed to sleep following learning or whether it was dependent on the time of day. Fourteen male high school students participated in the experiment and were divided into two conditions. In the first condition, the participants were given the same task as in the first experiment. Afterwards, they went home to sleep. The other condition was the same, only that the participants did not sleep.

Results of the second experiment showed that there was a significant relationship among the number of forgotten words between the two conditions. The results pointed out that there was a very high percentage on the number of words forgotten in the sleep-deprived condition, as compared to the condition where participants slept.

Summary
In conclusion, sleep has a great effect on the consolidation of memory. This proven fact was established by Walker et al. when they discussed the different findings on the importance of sleep on memory and plasticity. The experiment conducted by Fischer et al. has supplemented the claims of Walker, proving that sleep has an effect on memory even in improving motor-related skills. On the other hand, David N. Neubauer was able to determine that forgetfulness is a being caused by lack of sleep or disorders related to it. He also added that even nap time during any period of the day can already increase memory-related performance. Even in improvements on memory through vision, sleep proved to be very effective as concluded by Steffen Gais, Werner Plihal, Ullrich Wagner and Jan Born in their experiment. The same conclusions prevailed after an experiment by Steffen Gais1, Brian Lucas, and Jan Born, where they were able to generalise that sleep has a significant effect on hippocampus-dependent declarative memory.

This paper is a discussion of different animal models in schizophrenia. It also discusses the recent models and studies involving this topic.

Animal Models of Schizophrenia
Introduction
Schizophrenia is one of the most complicated disorders in psychology. Until now, there is no cure for the disorder but only treatments to dissipate its symptoms. Currently, schizophrenia is one of the top ten causes of disability in countries around the world. The most widely accepted theory regarding the existence of this mental disorder suggests that schizophrenia is a result of genetic predisposition with environmental exposures during pregnancy or during childhood that trigger the disorder ( Schizophrenia Facts and Statistics , n.d.). It is related to many variables such as suicide, violence and imprisonment.

Although there are a large percentage of people suffering from this illness, most of the cases go untreated. The stigma or the discrimination against people with mental illnesses has forced patients to refuse treatment. Patients also experience dissatisfaction with the services that they are getting, while 27 percent of the population of these patients thought that the illness would just go away on its own ( Schizophrenia Facts and Statistics , n.d.).

One of the innovations doctors are involved with today is the usage of animal models of schizophrenia. Animal models are said to be very helpful in finding and designing treatments for different kinds of diseases incorporated with humans. Using animals in the field of abnormal psychiatry or psychology, however, is not a very popular method for research and experimentation for it raises various ethical issues. Particularly in cases of schizophrenia, the mental disorder is a challenge for doctors since its symptoms involve largely of unique human behavior. Schizophrenia is also hereditary and therefore cannot be simulated in a rodent or a non-human primate (Hirsch et al., 1995). In the neurobiological view, however, schizophrenia has opened new doors for animal models, especially regarding hypotheses on the actiological and pathophysiological aspects of the illness (388).

Schizophrenia
The term  schizophrenia  is from two Greek words  schizo , which means  splitting  and  phrenia  which means  of the mind . These two terms are combined, hence the term  schizophrenia  which means  split mind  (Tsuang et al., 1997). In the book entitled  Schizophrenia The facts  by Ming T. Tsuang, Stephen V. Faraone, and Peter D. C. Johnson, there is a discussion of physical disorders of the brain that are associated with schizophrenia. The most common of these disorders is viral infection of the brain or encephalitis. A particular form of this is epilepsy or temporal lobe epilepsy (18). The authors explained that physical brain disorders do not necessarily lead to schizophrenia. They emphasized that brain conditions such as behavioral changes because of deteriorating brain cells, bleeding within the brain, brain tumor, injury, or Huntington s disease only show schizophrenic-like features (18). There is really no such thing, according to the authors, as a  well-defined  diagnosis of schizophrenia since the disorder itself is poorly understood.

So far, there are different theories or hypotheses as to the origin of schizophrenia. According to the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia, the malfunction in the DA neurotransmitters is the cause of the symptoms of the disorder. The hyperactivity of the mesolimbic dopaminergic neurons, in particular, is believed to be the one that is producing the positive signs of schizophrenia such as psychosis. As for the negative signs, it is caused by hypodopaminergic state in the frontal-cortical terminal fields of mesocortical DA neurons (Marcotte et al., 2001).

Glutamatergic N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, when administered with phencyclidine (PCP), can effectively mimic the negative symptoms of nonparanoid schizophrenia. When this was done on healthy subjects, it led to the manifestation of schizophrenic-like symptoms. Because of this, it was also hypothesized that the malfunction of the NMDA receptors can also cause schizophrenia (Marcotte et al., 2001).

Animal Models
In 1969, McKinney and Bunney proposed four criteria for evaluating animal models for psychiatric disorders. Animal models must have similarity of inducing conditions. They also have similarities in behavior states. There must be a common underlying neurobiological mechanisms. Also, the conditions must be reversed by clinically effective treatment techniques (Boulton et al., 1991).
According to the book  Schizophrenia  written by Steven R. Hirsch and Daniel Roy Weinberger, there are three different levels in which animal models may represent a disease (1995). First of all, the model must be able to reproduce the inducing factors of the disease such as genetic defect, and the pathological processes associated with it. Second, it has to mimic the phenomenon, in this case, schizophrenia. Finally, the models must be able to predict the responses to treatments, which are already existing (388).

Pharmacological Dopamine-Based Animal Models
As stated on the previous page, the dopamine hypothesis is one of the leading theories in the origin of schizophrenia. Most animal models of the disorder are traditionally based on this hypothesis since dopamine systems have strong implications on it. Evidence that supports this notion is the presence of dopamine agonists that tend to exhibit schizophrenic-like symptoms resembling psychosis (388). In support of the validity of this model, the administration of amphetamine and related psychostimulants result to behavioral alterations such as hyperlocomotion and stereotypy. The relevance of this to patients diagnosed with schizophrenia is highly debated. However, amphetamine-induced stereotypic behavior can be attenuated by treatment with antipsychotics, thus supporting the model s validity (Marcotte et al., 2001).

Neuro Developmental Model
Aside from dopamine-related models, there are also other models which focus on alcohol exposure, extreme malnutrition or any gestational factors. These models are called  aetiological  models (Hirsch et al., 1995). For example, a pregnant rat is deprived of protein all throughout pregnancy. This malnutrition model creates changes in the development of the brain of the offspring. Malnutrition alters neurogenesis, cell migration, and differentiation. It also distorts normal brain development, resulting to defective neuro circuits and neurotransmitter systems (390). Because of these effects on cognition and learning, it has mimicked certain schizophrenic characteristics. However, the effect of malnutrition is also dependent on many factors. If test for plausibility, it would have limited validity.

Genetic Animal Models
One of the drugs used in models of schizophrenia is amphetamine. The best animal model for this is the DA Transporter Knockout Mice (DAT-KO). When DA is genetically removed, it results to the persistent high levels of dopaminergic tone, which is much more relevant to the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia (Gainetdinov et al., 2001).

DAT-KO mice reproduce several features of the amphetamine animal model of schizophrenia such as hyperactive and stereotypic. They also show significant defects in sensorimotor gating and spatial cognitive function. Because of this, there is a possibility that behavior exhibited by DAT mutant mice might have the same validity as a schizophrenia model compared with amphetamine-induced behavior (529). On the other hand, there are characteristics in the DAT mutant mice which do not resemble characteristics of those who are diagnosed with schizophrenia, such as the lack of social interactions. Drugs such as psychostimulants, which are known to elevate psychosis in patients, surprisingly have an opposite effect on the mice. Nevertheless, Raul R. Gainetdinov, Amy R. Mohn and Marc G. Caron pointed out that there is a possibility that disordered DAT function can heighten disturbances in other neuronal components which are present in some symptoms of schizophrenia. Therefore, DAT-KO mice still pose significance to certain features of the disorder but may not give an explanation regarding all behaviors associated with schizophrenia (3).

Hippocampal-Lesion Model
Hippocampal-lesioned animals are qualified models for schizophrenia because they also qualify for the requisites for animal models as set by McKinney and Bunney (as cited in Boulton et al., 1991). According to Nestor A. Schmajuk and Mabel Tyberg, schizophrenia might be caused by hippocampal damages resulting from viral infection during pregnancy. They also explained the significance of hippocampal-lesion models to the disorder, pointing out that animals with hippocampal lesions have the same characteristics with those of schizophrenia patients in both cognitive and psychophysiological processes. They also stated the possible presence of hippocampal dysfunction in schizophrenia and its effects might be reversed by neuroleptics (67).

One procedure in establishing the relationship between hippocampal-lesion and schizophrenia in animal models is surgery, particularly, the removal of the hippocampus. The animal is then subjected to behavioral testing (71).

NMDA Antagonist Animal Model
In laboratory animals, phencyclidine (PCP), ketamine, and other NMDA antagonists produce behavioral profiles that are related to the effects of the said drugs on humans. They produce malfunctions in cognitive functions such as memory tasks. These drugs also distort social behavior, hyperactivity, stereotypy, and sensory gating deficits. They are thus used as pharmacological animal models of schizophrenia.

The NMDA antagonist model has several advantages compared to the pharmacological model. The most significant advantage of this model is that it is the only one with a clinical parallel. Healthy persons who are given low dosages of ketamine manifest some negative and positive symptoms, as well as cognitive difficulties, similar to those experienced by schizophrenia patients (Moghaddam and Jackson, 2003). Unlike the pharmacological model, prolonged exposure to ketamine or PCP is not needed to produce psychosis. This is because psychosis produced by PCP were already reported during the time it was first used as anesthetic (133).  Clinical trials to PCP and ketomine showed that a single exposure to these drugs would produce schizophrenic-like symptoms in non-schizophrenics, with effects persisting for up to several days. Another characteristic of the NMDA model is that PCP psychosis does not respond to common antipsychotic therapies (133).

Recent Models and Studies
One of the most interesting developments in animal models for schizophrenia is on mice that are hypomorphic for neuregulin 1 or NRG1. Recent scans of schizophrenia families showed that schizophrenia maps to chromosome 8p, making NRG1 as a candidate gene for the disorder. NRG1 is manifested at central nervous system synapses. It has a significant role in the activation of NMDA receptors. Mutant mice heterogeneous of NRG1 or ErbB4 show impaired repulse inhibition and hyperlocomotion, which is similar to the effects in the NMDA antagonist model of schizophrenia (135).

In an internet article entitled,  Success in Animal Model of Schizophrenia , dated August 23, 2005, a group of researchers reported that they were able to produce cellular changes in rats  brains that are similar to those seen in humans diagnosed with schizophrenia. They did it by manipulating a precise area of the rat s amygdala, which is the part of the brain responsible for emotional stress and learning. This breakthrough is based on 15 years of study by Francine M. Benes, MD, PhD, director of McLeans Program in Structural and Molecular Neuroscience. The researchers hypothesized that the changes were caused by excessive electrical input to the hippocampus by the amygdala.

Summary
Schizophrenia is a very complicated disorder. Its origins are still unknown up to this date. Diagnosis of the disorder is not well defined. So far, we know that there are a number of drugs that influence the development of schizophrenia. Theories such as the dopamine theory have given a brighter light as to understanding schizophrenia.

One of the methods of finding out a cure for schizophrenia is by using animal models. McKinney and Bunney have laid down the criteria for a valid animal model. One of the most common models used in laboratories is the pharmacological model. It is based on the dopamine hypothesis, which is a leading theory on the origins of schizophrenia. Other models include the hippocampal-lesion animal model, the NMDA antagonist animal model, the neurodevelopmental model, and the genetic animal model. Recent models have also been introduced as new technologies rose.

Conclusion
In conclusion, animal models in psychiatric and psychological research provide human beings the opportunity to explore new methods in diagnosing and treating patients with different mental disorders. Although using animals for research has aroused public concern and raised ethical issues, the discovery of new medicines and therapeutic methods can be easily achieved without the risk of human life.

Animal models have given a bright light to research on schizophrenia. Little by little, animal models have brought us closer and closer to the origin and nature of the disorder. They also provide new information to future researchers who will eventually design their own systems of therapy for schizophrenia.

Virtues
Virtues can broadly be said to be the mean between vicious extremes of character traits (Irbe par. 3). Aristotle explains virtues through an analysis of the human soul which makes up and gives life to a living human being. The human soul has two elements The rational element which is distinctly human and the irrational element which is shared with animals. The irrational element harbors the vegetative faculty responsible for growth and nutrition. An organism which excels in this faculty can be said to have a nutritional virtue (IEP par 28). A second faculty that is responsible for our emotions as well as desires such as joy, hope, fear and grief is called the appetitive faculty and this is both irrational, since even animals also experience desires, and also rational because humans have the capacity to control these desires helped with reason. This human to control these desires is what is called moral virtue which is the focus of morality (IEP par 30). The third virtue is called the intellectual virtue. There is a purely rational part of the soul called the calculative, which is charged with the human ability to contemplate, perform logical reasoning as well as perform scientific principles. The mastery of these abilities is what is called intellective virtue (IEP par 30).

Virtues (such as the moral virtue), are acquired through learning, being the result of teaching and practice. Since moral values are character traits, they are developed by creating a balance, or a mean between extreme character traits. For instance, when responding to the natural emotion of fear, one should develop a virtuous character trait of courage which is a middle point between the following extremes (IEP par 32). If one develops an excessive character trait by curbing fear too much, rashness results, which is a vice. On the other hand, if one develops a deficient character trait by curbing fear too little, one is said to be cowardly, which is also a vice (IEP par 32-33).

Aristotelian Ethics in the Current Character Education Programs
Since teachers cannot teach students to be religious, they can instill values and character. This can be achieved through character education (Derek par. 16). The purpose of character education is to help young people appreciate, respect and act upon fundamental ethical values. Certain core virtues are emphasized instead of dwelling on decision making or process which dwell more on moral feeling as opposed to moral knowing and moral action, both of which are essential in creating good character. The realization that society cannot operate effectively without following certain virtues has fuelled the need for character education. Through teaching literature, actual morals can be taught and practical ways of becoming a good person can be presented because literature is a way in which reality can be experienced. (Derek par 30). School communities identify the central values of the school and proceed to teach and incorporate the same into students lives. The character traits, being part of the whole communitys fabric, should seep into the childs learning environment in class, sports, shopping mall, caf or gymnasium. The study of heroes and heroines whereby the students examine character traits personified in them and are encouraged to emulate them. (Holt par 10). Programs which emphasize responsibility, respect, trustworthiness, fairness, caring and citizenship are encouraged and material and training sessions made available (Holt par 12). Students learn to differentiate between celebrity and hero while emphasizing on the latter thereby encouraging them to stick their necks out and develop a caring community (Holt par 13). Service learning, which is a requirement in some states, acts as a vehicle for character education and it involves students addressing actual community needs and while allowing them to experience direct academic ties with the classroom (Holt par 14).

Conclusion
Character development which in past decades had been left out of school curriculums has seen a recent revival due to the deteriorating moral behavior and an increase in vices. The realization of the need for fundamental human values to counter these vices and improve the learning environment in and out of classroom has contributed to the integration of character education in schools. This helps to re-connect the students, deal with conflict and ensure students are on task in the learning environment.

Parental divorce has a substantial effect on children which can be long-term or short term. Long term effects can range from long-term financial difficulties, psychological, mental, physical and also social problems. This could be as a result of lack of both emotional and social support that is derived from stable families. Divorce entails separation of parents leaving the family broken, a situation that denies the children a safe and steady informal environment for learning. It also minimizes the ability of parents to guard their children against negative influences from the surrounding environment. However, there are some cases where divorce brings about short term relieve to children especially where violence that is directed to children and a parent is involved. Although this may reduce short-term physical together with psychological effects, long-tem effects are bound to occur (Amato, 2000).

Financial effects this arises due to the break up of the familys financial structure forcing each of the parents to rely on their personal incomes for survival unlike previously when they could pool their incomes together. Since the success of children relies on both financial and social support from parents, children who are brought up in a family with two parents are likely to have high achievements compared to those with one because of the presence of both parents who could offer complementary resources when needed. Each of the divorced parents will be forced to use available resources in trying to set up a new home at the expense of the childrens needs of quality education and better health services. In some cases where fathers start new families, the possibility of children being affected financially rises because the father could end up spending less on them (Cherlin, Kiernan  Chase-Lansdale, 1995).

Social impact the social impact of divorce on children has been found to be massive. Children whose parents divorce during their formative years have been found to be greatly affected compared to those who their parents divorce at a later date. These children become prone to divorce in their later lives. This is so because, during formative years, children require both parents for effective development of skills and values that are necessary in development of stable relationships in future. It is evident in men who grow with single mothers who tend to behave in a deviant way with violent natures who eventually end up being involved in criminal activities (Amato, 2001).

Because the children are not able take sides during divorce, they feel as if they are the cause of the divorce. As a result, they may end up getting depressed and eventually becoming suicidal. Their personality and sense of confidence is affected by the regular arguments and fights that their parents may have had. Eventually, after divorce if proper measures such as counseling are not taken, they may become emotionally destabilized which may lead to drug abuse and suicide (DOnofrio et al, 2003). When the non custodian parent moves far away from the other and does not communicate frequently or in totality to the children, they may feel a sense of loose of a parent. Girls get affected by their fathers absence whereby they may become emotionally withdrawn from both boys and men during growth and later on in life. Divorce cases tend to affect boys more than girls. Boys tend to show signs of violent and criminal behaviors while girls become neurotic depressive which mostly depends on their mothers behavior. They carry these behaviors to their relationships in future which explain why most marriages of such children do not last (Furstenberg  Teitler, 1994).

According to Cherlin, Chase-Lansdale  McRae (1998), divorce may cause long term mental disorders for children between the age bracket 0 and 4. This is so because of lack of care that is essential for full development of the child. An example is when the father is given custody of the child, the child misses an opportunity to breast feed and receive post-natal care which may lead to mental defects later on in life. This affects their ability to perform in sports and school activities (DOnofrio et al, 2005).

To enhance adjustment of the child to the situation, it is recommended that parents should discuss the impending divorce to ensure that its done at a level where it will not have a great effect to the child, they should be able to answer any question that the child could be having about the situation, the child should be assured that it was not by hisher fault that they separated, the child should be assured that both parents will continue loving himher, the childs needs should be the parents priority, the parent in custody of the child should not expect hisher emotional needs to be met by the child, parenting should continue as usual, continued visitation of the child by the other parent who doesnt have custody of the child should be ensured, parents should avoid being critical of the other and avoid interrogating the child about visits made by the other parent (Caspi et al, 2004).

In conclusion, the effects of divorce to children are damaging to the childs development leading to both physical and psychological disorders. This affects the childs ability to develop social skills which are important in developing stable relationships later on in life. It also affects both financial and social well being of the children involved. The effects can be controlled through ensuring that the affected children are surrounded by an enabling environment which will help them acquire the required social, emotional and financial support. This will help reduce the long-term effects that result from such cases. Other ways that could be considered in trying to reduce these long term effects include looking for a step family or introduction of special mentorship programs in schools. Because of the effects involved, there is need for child mental health specialists who are familiar with the wide range of complications that divorce may have on the child so that they can help reduce if not prevent the effects.   

Usually, when one thinks of health and illness, the first thought for remedy usually falls under the scope of the traditional biomedical model of disease. One would think that medicine, doctors or surgeons would do the trick, when in fact, such comprise only half the story. The other side to the story is that of the health psychology model. Neither should be underestimated. Together, the two approaches fulfill a holistic view on all factors that may contribute or have some connection to health.

With the biomedical model, it focuses on pathology (Friedman, 2002, p.70). As mentioned, it deals with the curative side of health, or at least the containment of it. Under the biomedical model would be physicians, nurses or professionals who earn a living with treating disease, with the male professionals, and those most technically apt receiving the highest salary. Also under the biomedical model would be the practice of paying for treatment as well as insurance. In terms of treatment, this would comprise surgery and pharmaceuticals, as well as allied health services such as rehabilitation. Treatment that is not administered by physicians would be called alternative medicine.

The Psychology model on the other hand focuses on health (Friedman, 2002, p.70). It focuses on the prevention rather than cure and seeks to maintain, restore and promote health. While the biomedical model employs health professionals, this model would have scientists working on public health as well as promoting mental health, along with some government agencies. Here, people would pay for legal and social change for heath. While the biomedical model focuses on drugs and surgery, the psychology model would look at behavior, thoughts, habits, coping and adaptation. The psychology model considers families and communities, as the biomedical view only looks at the person. Finally, an individual is seen as a consumer availing of treatment from health professionals being seen as expert advisors.

Summary This paper focuses on how schizophrenia as a mental disorder is more disruptive to a persons daily life as compared to other mental disorders. The paper defines the symptoms associated with schizophrenia namely the positive, negative and cognitive and compares it with problems associated with anxiety and mood disorders. The paper also shows the portrayal of schizophrenia in popular media by using the movie A beautiful mind. Through the description of the movie and the series of unfortunate events that happen to Nash as a result the reader is able to realize that through Nashs experiences that schizophrenia is a debilitating mental illness that has the potential to ruin a persons life and destroy what made them who they are. Finally the paper concludes with an overall comparison of the different mental disorders and described and shows that while the other disorders do affect the lives of those who are afflicted by them the disorders themselves dont stop them from being able to live a normal life. It shows that other mental disorders are more of an annoyance or maybe a just a small hindrance compared to schizophrenia which can change a persons life for the worst.

Adolf Hitler, a dreaded figure in the 20th century, was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party, popularly referred to as Nazi party.
He was an extreme autocrat and led Germany from 1933 to 1945 both as a chancellor and head of state. Hitler was a veteran of the Second World War. As he rose to absolute power, he gained support by propping up German nationalism, anti-capitalism, anti-communism and anti-semitism using both his alluring oratory and cant. He sparked World War II in Europe when he re-armed Germany and invaded Poland in 1939. Hitler wed his long-time mistress Eva Braun at the fall of Berlin in 1945, but to avoid being captured by the Soviet army, the two committed suicide less than two days later (Joachim, 1974).

But his regime has left many unanswered questions, even among psychoanalysts. The extreme heartlessness that marked Nazism and the Holocaust beats not only logic but also human understanding. It remains a puzzle how Germans collectively went out of their minds under Hitler and perpetrated one of the greatest horrors in history.

During the war, Hitler-led Nazi forces engaged in constant cruel acts. This included the systematic murder of up to 17million civilians, about six million of whom were Jews targeted in the Holocaust. Roman victims are approximated to be up to 1.5 million, while others included the disabled, ethnic Poles, homosexuals, Soviet civilians and Jehovahs Witnesses.

But was Hitler in his right senses as he oversaw all this I believe not so. He is believed to have suffered from a mental disorder, particularly Borderline Personality Disorder (BPD).

BDP generally involves prolonged disturbance of personality function in persons over the age of 18 years, although it is sometimes found in adolescents. It is typified by depth and inconsistency of moods. It normally involves abnormal levels of instability in mood, black and white thinking, chaotic and unstable interpersonal relationships, self-image, identity, and behavior as well as a regular disturbance in the patients sense of self. This disturbance can, in severe cases, lead to periods of dissociation. (American Psychiatric Association, 2001).

The disturbances can eventually have an insidious negative impact on much of the psychosocial aspect of life and without proper therapy, self-harming is often an open possibility. (Gunderson, 2001). An insight into Hitlers life shows a manifestation of the various components of this disorder.
This is attributable to claims that he had empty human relations, was inflexible and single-minded, had no human feelings, oversaw malevolent behavior, and eventually committed suicide, among others (Toland 1991). Emotional torture seems to have been one of the main reasons behind Hitlers situation, and his subsequent inhumanity. There is a strong correlation between child abuse and development of BDP.  Majority of BPD patients usually have a history of abuse and neglect as young children, especially if they were emotionally, physically, verbally, or sexually abused by parents. Loss of a caregiver or loved one could also be a central factor. (Gunderson, 2001).

And this could answer the origin of Hitlers condition. The loss of a younger brother, Edmund, to measles in 1900 caused permanent changes in Hitler. He transformed from a confident, outgoing boy who found school easy, to a depressed, sullen and detached boy who always battled his own father and his teachers.

As a child, Hitlers also suffered abuse that included brutal sadistic beatings as well as constant verbal humiliation by his father Alois Sr. He once even tried to escape from home by constructing a raft with friends, and his father beat him so viciously that the dad even thought he killed his son (Dorpat 1999). Hitlers mother was on her part depressed and forlorn about her marriage and felt guilt over her incestuous bond with Alois. She also failed to discipline Hitler and contain his tempers.

It is this abuse and neglect, and his parents emotional withdrawal from him that may possibly have made Hitler suffer from BDP at a tender age. This trauma subsequently left him badly unprepared for social, academic and job-related pursuits. (Waite, Robert, 1993)

With BDP deemed to be a result of a problem with emotional dysregulation, experts have even developed Dialectical Behavioral Therapy (DBT), a method of cognitive therapy in BPD treatment. Yet, central to the success of this therapy is the conviction that BPD is a biological disorder exemplified by sharp sensitivity to emotion and amplified emotional intensity. Other experts believe that any biological components of BPD are probably related to changes that occur on a biological level as a result of emotional and psychological trauma. (Linehan, 1993).

This biological perspective could thus also effectively correlate Hitlers emotional distress with his disorder. Some existing literature further suggests that traits related to BPD are influenced by genes. People with BPD influenced by genes often have a close relative with the disorder, although Hitlers fathers brutal treatment of his son does not suffice a conclusion that he suffered from this disorder as well. The diagnosis of this disorder in Hitler could thus explain could strange behavior that was so characteristic of him later in his life.

Individuals with BPD are extremely sensitive to the manner in which others treat them and often react strongly to perceived disapproval or hurtfulness. Their self-image can change swiftly from exceedingly positive to extremely negative. They often resort to impulsive behaviors that include drug abuse and general recklessness. And this was characteristic of Hitler.

He was addicted to amphetamine after the late summer of 1942. This went in tandem with his sadistic, malevolent, and antisocial behavior clearly depicted in the Holocaust and the World War II. He also showed signs of splitting. He held an image of himself as ostentatious omnipotent and triumphant on one side and felt inferior, mortified and defeated on the other, making his behavior very erratic. (Dorpat 1999). It is believed the diagnosis of this disorder accounts for Hitlers ruthless and destructive personality transformation and lack of human feelings. It also explains the fact that he was distant, self-contained, withdrawn and without friends.

The cognitive aspect of BDP is to an extent manifested in the form of quasipsychotic or micropsychotic symptoms among those suffering from this disorder. These symptoms include inner voices telling them to commit suicide, depersonalization and paranoid feelings. This usually prevails in the defeated side of the split and is fanned vulnerability, despair and self hatred. The fact that Hitler went on to commit suicide probably shows a direct manifestation of the cognitive component of BDP. (Heston, 1980).

 And these symptoms are often suppressed using Cognitive Behavioral Therapy. This form of therapy involves a therapist engaging with a client in a bid to change both behavior and thought patterns.  Hitler was nonetheless never subjected to this therapy.

In conclusion, it is evident that BDP took toll on Hitlers emotions and served as the base for his malevolence and anti-social behavior. The disorder, perhaps coupled with several other mental challenges, resulted in acute psychiatric problems and played a major role in molding his personal behavior, which depicted a man not in charge of himself.