Psychology

 The term Alexithymia happens to be a very new term and it is known to refer to a condition where a person is not able to express his feelings in words. From research that has been conducted on this topic, it is clear that majority of the people know that they are going to have a lot of problem if they are not able to express their feelings in words. Experts in medical field term this as a condition where the person is not at all able to describe his or her emotions in word. They say that most of those people who happen to be Alexithymic are never sure of what their feelings are. (Parker, 2000)

This term was created by Peter Sifneous who was a doctor back in 1972 from three Greek words. The first one was a which presented lack, then lexis which means word and lastly thymos which means emotions. Even though this disorder seems to be a new one, research has it that it is a personality trait that is now putting people at risk of psychiatric and other medical disorders.  This is encouraged by the fact that there is a likelihood that all those individuals who are found to have the condition will probably not respond to convectional treatment of the other disorders that they may be having. (Sifneos, 2004)
However, this condition is not classified in the DSM IV under the mental disorder classification because it happens to be a dimensional personality trait which changes as a person grows. In addition, it also happens to be different from one person to the other person. Research has it that majority of the people who find themselves having this condition are those who will always avoid having emotional relationship which are close. However there are some who eventually get into relationship but they tend to be impersonal, dominant or dependent of the other person. (Sifneos, 2004)

Further studies that were conducted in the year 2008 found that Alexithymia was related to relational affection demonstrations and impaired understanding. These conditions are known to contribute to a very poor relational well being, poor mental health and lowered relational quality. Apart from these, this condition is known to negatively affect the relationship between some couples. The condition is also known to be demonstrated by those individuals who happen to work in organizations which consider control of emotions a norm. However, these individuals are not necessarily Alexithymic. They are acting in that manner due to the circumstances that they find themselves in. It can also be said that if this situation is persistent, these people may lose their original identity due to continued lack of self expression. (Lesser, 2008)
85 per cent of all though people with autism are known to have Alexithymia. Most of the people with anorexia nervosa, posttraumatic stress disorder, panic disorder, major depression disorder substance abuse and bulimia are also said to have Alexithymia.  A research that was conducted in the year 2004 found out that Alexithymia will in most cases overlap with Asperser syndrome. (Sifneos, 2004)

There are some universal signs that one should look for so as to known whether he or she has Alexithymia. The first one is that if one is being perceived by other people as being unsentimental or excessively logical without being unfriendly, when one finds it difficult talking about his or her emotions, when one occasionally suffers from inexplicable physiological disturbances for instance stomach ache, palpitations or hot flushes and when one is perplexed by emotional reactions of other people. People with this condition seem to have a serious problem communicating and therefore, therapists who want to cure them must strike a sympathetic nerve in this situation. (Lesser, 2008)

Attachment, as a theoretical construct is, more than 50 years old. It traces its roots from Bowlbys early work experience in London and later, with the World Health Organization (S.R. Bowlby, 2004). Fundamentally, attachment theory is an ethologicalbehavioral  control  system theory jointly formulated by John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth to explain the nature of a childs attachment to his primary caregiver and its implications for personality development (Bowlby, 19691982 Ainsworth et al, 1978). It provides a perspective on the way close relationships can provide a secure base (Ainsworth, 19671969 Bowlby, 1988). It assumes the presence of maternal sensitivity, responsiveness and attachment figure (Bowlby, 19691982 Ainsworth et al, 1978).  The other, nearly equal component is the caregivers own mental representation of attachment, her own internal working models experienced and developed in her infancy and childhood (Harris, 2003). Attachment theory also presupposes biological necessity. Attachment behaviors must exist and be reciprocated for the infant to survive both physically and mentally (Bowlby, 1958).
    Attachment theory was developed in part, as an alternative to psychoanalytic theory to explain why separation caused anxiety in young children to explain the similarities between childhood and adult loss and mourning, to explain the process of defenses in the human psyche and to explain the mechanisms of social behavior from infancy that affect and influence the development of the personality along a continuum (Barnett  Vondra, 1999 Cristobal, 2003 Waters et al, 2002).
    Although attachment theorists define attachment theory differently, common concepts run through these definitions proximity, specificity, and necessity.  In addition, the concepts of pleasure and enjoyment describe the mother-infant attachment dyad (Ainsworth, 1967 Bowlby, 1958 Winnicott, 196419871993). In expounding on the theory, Bowlby (1958) refers to the use of words in describing the reciprocal attachment between the mother and the infant. Words, according to Bowlby, refer to biological, physical, affective and behavioral responses that an infant exhibits in order to get the same response from his  her caregiver  mother. This pattern exists to create the attachment between mother and infant.  The bond protects the infant  child from fear and harm and sets the stage for the formation of caregiver as a secure base, thereby offering the developing child a safe place from which to explore the world. Said behavioral aspect of attachment provides infants with survival extincts (Bowlby, 1958). But attachment is more complex than behavioral stimulus and response mechanisms.
Attachment is also an emotional and affective bond or tie that reflects the enjoyment and the attraction that one individual holds for another specific individual (Ainsworth, 1969 Bowlby, 1958 Cassidy, 1999). From an emotional perspective, attachment is the creation of a mutual bond in which the mother shapes infant development through her interactions and relationship with her child (Porter, 2003, p.1). One can observe and quantify attachment behaviors. One must infer and interpret attachment in its affective and emotive forms. Smiles and attaches can be counted, measured, and plotted. Delight and enjoyment, however, must be lived
Attachment to a protective and loving caregiver who provides guidance, support, and a secure base is a basic human need. There is an instinct to attach, a biological necessity, what Bowlby (1982) referred to as evolutionary adaptedness. Attachment behaviors must exist and be reciprocated for the infant to survive both physically and psychically (Bowlby, 1958) Babies instinctively reach out for the safety and security of the secure base with caregivers. The instinctive attachment behaviors in the baby are activated by cues or signals from the caregivers, for example, smiling, feeding, reaching for and gazing at the infant. Parents instinctively protect and nurture their children. The instinctual attachment behaviors iii the parents are activated by cues or signals from the infant, for example, smiling, following, calling, and crying. The attachment process is defined as a mutual regulatory system where the baby and the caregiver influence one another over time (Tronik, 1989).
Attachment is defined as an enduring relationship between a young child and primary caregiver (Ainsworth et al, 1978). Attachment relationships vary widely across primary caregiver-infantchild pairs (Ainsworth  Bell, 1970) but are always permanent and irreplaceable (Bamett  Vondra, 1999). Attachment relationships teach individuals how to be in relationship with significant others and influences all subsequent relationship through to adulthood- Attachment, first and foremost, occurs in the holding environment of the mother- infant attachment relationship. All other definitions or systems of understanding must stand upon this principle.
Major concepts of Ainsworths attachment theory
Ainsworths attachment theory and research has had a considerable impact to the field of development psychology (Mitchell  Black, 1995). Ainsworth is one of the leading figures in development psychology on attachment and has brought a rich view on mother and infant attachment by looking at this relationship through empirical research. It was her ingenuity of design and the rigorously meticulous observational research that provided legitimacy and recognition to Bowlbys theory.
 Ainsworth undertook three protogenic studies of infant-mother interactions and of infant security.  She began in 1954 with her year-long study of infant- maternal relationships in naturalistic home settings in Uganda. This was followed in the early 1960s with a detailed, and very observationally rich, to-part project in Baltimore that combined infant, assess(ment) in stressful settings the Strange Situation as well as in the home (Main, 1999, p.14).
Ainsworths creative and original research undeniably established attachment theory as a discipline of remarkable import. Bowlbys ideas were to be, widely embraced - .developmental and academic psychologists largely as a function of pioneering efforts of Mary Ainsworth
(Slade, 1999, p. 578). Waters and Cummings (2000) sum up key theoretical components of the theory
The Bowlby Ainsworth attachment theory reflects (1) the value of Freuds insights about the nature of importance of early relationships (2) Bowlbys wisdom in reconceptualizing the infant-mother tie as a secure-base relationship (3) the health and progress of control systems theory, evolutionary theory, and cognitive psychology, the science that underpin attachment theory and (4) the lasting value of Ainsworths initial ethological studies of infant attachments in Uganda and Baltimore (p. 164).
Ainsworths original work has been replicated many times over and also elaborated to apply to older aged children as such, the Strange Situation, in combination with the validating criteria of Ainsworths Baltimore Home Study, is considered the gold standard (Waters, 2002, p. l) as strongly reliable procedure for assessing individual differences in the organization of attachment (Rothbard  Shaver, 1995, p.35).
Concept of Secure Base
Ainsworths (1967) concept of the secure base is a central element of attachment theory. She believed that an infant views his or her mother as the secure base from which the infant will not stray far. A healthy secure base can provide security and guidance for the childs exploration of their inner thoughts and feelings. Bowlby (1988) has stated that parents play a crucial role in providing a safe haven in which children can explore their environment. In exploration, the child is able to mature as they encounter many new people and things. They learn how to interact with people and objects in the environment.
The child, however, needs to be confident and secure in their relationship with their caretaker in order for that parent (mother) to provide a secure base for them to be able to explore (Bowlby, 1988). Furthermore, the child has to feel that the caretaker will be able to attend to and comfort them if they become distressed andor frightened (Ainsworth  Bowlby, 1991). Exploration can stop if the child loses confidence and comfort in their caretakers accessibility. If a child does not have this secure base from his caretaker, then the child will n.ca able to gain the experiences that are needed from the environment for healthy emotional growth- According to Bowlby, no parent is going to provide a secure base for his growing child unless he has an intuitive understanding of and respect for his childs attachment behavior and treats it as intrinsic and valuable part of human nature I believe it to be (Bowlby,  1988, p.12).
Ainsworth and her colleagues did much to help popularize attachment theory (Parke et al., 1994). Ainsworths research on attachment patterns was able to shift the focus to individual differences and help categorize and explain the deviations from the norm (Robbins, 2000). Bowlbys attachment theory prior to Ainsworths research focused more on a normative component, which stressed the modality of species-specific b al patterns and stages of development, which were the norms for all humans (Parke, et al. 94). Without Ainsworths work on patterns of attachment in the Strange Situation, Bowlbys theoretical contributions to developmental and clinical psychology would not have been as influential.
The phenomenon of the attachment bond formed in infancy between primary caregiver and child is similar to that of love in that it is a profound human experience that is difficult to define and difficult to measure What is easier to describe is the nature of the attachment bond that is affectionate, persistent, non-transitory, and exists consistently over time regardless of whether attachment behavior is present or not. It is emotionally significant in that there is a strong desire to maintain contact or proximity to the attachment figure and to feel distress upon involuntary separation. Threat of toss of the attachment figure arouses anxiety, and persistent or long-term loss causes despair. The defining feature of the bond, however, is that the individual seeks security from those to whom one is attached (Ainsworth, 1989). The bond is built on trust and there is the expectancy that the attachment figure will do what is possible to come to the childs aid. When the attachment bond is intact, significant joy, pleasure, and comfort are experienced between caregiver and child, which in turn creates a desire to be together and to avoid separation (Berk, 2001). The asymmetrical (parent- child) bond serves a protective function that can be felt throughout the lifespan and, though presence of the attachment figure becomes less necessary over time, the bond does not weaken (Cassidy, 1999 Bowlby, 19691 982).
Attachment how it comes about
To know how attachment comes about is to understand what contributes to attachment formation and to develop an effective intervention, it is necessary to know when attachment usually takes place. There have been varying ideas as to when attachment is actually being formed.  Bowlby in 19691982 stated Although it can now be taken for granted that all are agreed on the empirical fact that within twelve months almost all infants have developed a strong tie to a mother-figure, there is no consensus on how quickly this comes about (p. 177). In a very early study Schaffer and Emerson (1 964) found that one-third of the infants were showing attachment behavior by six months of age and three quarters by nine months of age. Attachment behavior is defined by Bowlby (1980) as actions that increase proximity of infants to their mothers such as signaling behaviors (e.g., smiling, cooing, crying) or active behaviors (e.g., approaching following). Although the above described behaviors such as smiling and cooing are not noticed until the baby is about two months old (Berk, 2001), there is some evidence that
bonding is already taking place at birth. In a study by Klaus and Kennel (1976), it was found that mothers who nursed their infants twice in the first 3 hours after birth and spent more than 15 hours with them in the following three days displayed greater attraction to their infants a month later than mothers who had less contact. A positive difference in parenting was observed in these same mothers when observed two years later (Simpson, 1999). These mothers spoke more with their children, issued fewer commands, and displayed more affection toward their children. Mothers who were not allowed to spend time with their newborns after birth were more likely to mistreat their children and show less affection, engaging more in instrumental child-care activities instead (DeChateau  Wiberg, 1977).  Simpson (1999), in his article on the evolutionary perspective of attachment, states that Indeed, given the paramount importance of strong infant-primary caregiver bonds, evolutionary pressures should have permitted the formation of strong bonds at multiple stages of development beyond early infancy (p. 123).
Attachment in infants and caregivers
Bowlby (19691982) noted that observations in natural settings showed a great range of variability among infants in timing of attachment behaviors. However, Bowlby did describe what he felt were the four probable time stages of attachment development. Although his first stage of birth to 1-5 months is the most malleable in terms of infant attachment, especially if alternative attachment figures (i.e. fathers, grandparents, adoptive parents) are desirable of becoming attachment figures, it is his second stage of 1.5 to 8 months or the attachment in the making stage that is consistent with studies involving adoptees on when attachment is most likely to be critical (Chishoim et al, 1995 Singer et al, 1985 Tizard  Rees, 1975 Yarrow et al,1975).
Bowlbys (19691982) four stages and a brief description is listed below
The pre-attachment stage (birth to 1.5 months). During this time the infant displays innate signals such as smiling, crying, grasping and gazing into the eyes of the caregiver. Infants at this age do not show a preference to any one particular attachment figure. This is probably the most flexible time concerning other attachment bonds being formed besides that with the mother.
The attachment in the making stage (1-5 months to 6-8 months). During this period infants start to differentiate caregivers and to actively seek interaction with the attached caregiver. Their behaviors are elicited, modulated, or soothed most successfully by the attached caregiver Infants can now differentiate family members from strangers.
The stage of clear-cut attachment (6-8 months to 18 months). During this stage the three principal behaviors of attachment can be seen maintaining proximity to the attachment figure, seeking out the attachment figure for comfort and support, and using the attachment figure as a base from which to explore.  It is during this time that separation anxiety is apparent as evident from protests about separation and behavior designed to maintain the presence of the attachment figure. During prolonged separations, infants can be observed experiencing the three progressive stages of separation response protest, despair, and detachment.
Formation of a reciprocal relationship (18 months and onwards). This stage is the beginning of developing a goal-directed partnership with the caregiver in which negotiation replaces other behaviors to insure security. The main difference at this age is that the child has moved from concern about the proximity of the caregiver to the availability of the caregiver in times of distress. The childs assessment from past experiences of the reliability of the caregiver to give comfort and are forms a metal representation which serves as the childs internal working model for all future close
relationships (Bremerton, 1992).
According to attachment theory, the experience of a primary caregiver as a safe haven during infancy is a necessary condition for optimal personality development. The proximity to available and responsive caregivers provides the child with a secure base from which to handle stress (Bowlby, 1988 Ainsworth  Bell, 1970 Ainsworth, 1989). Attachment theory also claims that these experiences are internalized into internal working models. Bowlby defined internal working models as mental representations of attachment figures and the self, which results in unique attachment styles (Bowlby, 1988)
Attachment and the developing child
A secure attachment is important to a child because it affects the childs internal working model- An internal working model is believed to be a. set of expectations about the reliability of attachment figures to provide comfort and support in times of stress and can affect all subsequent relationships throughout the lifespan (Bowlby, 1980 Main et al., 1985 Sroufe et al, 1993). This inner mental representation of what can be expected from others becomes a vital part of the developing infants personality and becomes more stable and less flexible as the infant matures (Bowlby, 19691982 Bremerton  Murtholland, 1999). The developing childs actions will be guided by this representation regardless of any non-confirmatory evidence the child might encounter (Bremerton, 1992 Main, 1999) and is consistent with Hebbs rule which states that cells in the brain that fire together once are increasingly likely to do so again (Main, 1999). Young children under the age of three acquire knowledge of relationships and how they are conducted through subconscious rules and generalizations extracted from their prior experiences and stored in implicit memory (Fink,

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advantage in developing resilience (Fonagy et al, 1994 Svanberg, 1998). Indeed, the effect is so strong that John Bowlby (1988), the founder of attachment theory  wrote, The pathway followed by each developing individual and the extent to which he or she becomes resilient to stressful life events is determined to a very significant degree by the pattern of attachment developed during the early years (p. 177). Finally, securely attached children have also been found to have a physical advantage. They have steadier heart rhythms than insecurely attached infants (Izard et al., 1991) and have stronger immune systems than those who suffer from prolonged separation from the mother (Ader et al, 1995). Conversely, insecurely attached children are at risk for developing a range of psychological symptomatology.
Also, research has shown that insecurely attached children are more prone to developing anxiety disorders, depression, dissociative symptoms, and other psychopathology (Kraemer, 1992 Lewis et al., 2000 Shore, 1997). Behaviorally, insecurely attached children have been
shown to display more dependency, hostility, anger, and aggression. They are more likely to become victims or bullies and are more likely to engage in controlling behavior (Lyons-Ruth  Jacobvitz, 1999 Grossmann,  Sroufe, 1992)
The consistency of the outcomes associated with secure and insecure infant attachment styles suggest that attachment creates a developmental pathway to different patterns of psychosocial functioning. The period of infancy is also critically important in this process because secure attachment has only a small window of opportunity to develop. Several researchers have theorized that internal working models are created in the infant through the attachment process and that these models cannot be easily changed (Amini et al, 1996 Bowlby, 19691982 Bretherton  Muriholland, 1999) -- indeed, attachment has been found to be a relatively stable phenomenon from infancy through adolescence and into young adulthood (Bretherton et al, 1990 Hamilton, 2000 Main, 1995 Waters et al, 2000).
Attachment and adolescenceadulthood
Most often, people mistake adolescence with puberty. There is however a unique distinction between the two. The latter refers to the physiological changes that occur as the child starts to undergo sexual maturation while adolescence covers the stage from puberty to adulthood and all the attendant psychological changes that accompany such maturation. At this stage, the child begins to be concerned about his  her body image.
    Attachment theory focused initially on childhood, but it eventually extended to adulthood particularly on the adults romantic relationships (Hazan C and Shaver P., 1987). These authors analyzed how attachment can extend beyond infancy into adolescence and adulthood by drawing symmetry between the emotional bond formed between and infant and an attachment figure  caregiver and the adult romantic partners. They proposed that different individual attachment styles among adults are also found in the behavioral patterns (secure, anxious-ambivalent, and avoidant) that Ainsworth et al (1978) detected in infant-caregiver relationships. Having done so, Shaver and Hazan (1987) proceeded to outline the similarities and differences of attachment that occur in childhood and adulthood.  First, several factors determine the quality of attachment between the adolescents and the caregiver reciprocation, responsiveness of caregiver and sensitivity. Second, they reported that when securely attached, the adolescent  adult is generally happier and is able to adapt better to his her environment compared to hisher counterpart who is not as securely attached. Third, the mechanism attachment of maintaining proximity to ones caregiver runs true for both adult and infant. Because of this, extreme distress is experienced over separation from the caregiver  attachment figure and hence, attachment behaviors are attempted to renew contact with the separated caregiver.  Fifth, an intense sensitivity occurs in both adults and infants when seeking approval from the attachment figure (attachment figure and caregiver are used interchangeably) for any achievement or discovery. Lastly, there seems to be a unique babytalk communication between the adolescent  infant and the attachment figure.
Feeney et al. (1999) cite two distinct features that differentiate childhood attachment and adult attachment.  First, more than being reciprocal, childhood attachment is asymmetrical or complimentary.  Second, a sexual component usually accompanies adult attachments.   Meanwhile, Fraley (2004) cites several parallelisms on how romantic relationships and infant-caregiver relationship functions. First, on the matter of partner selection, adults cited responsive caregiving qualities such as attentiveness, warmth and sensitivity (Fraley, 2004) as foremost attractive when seeking for partners in long-term relationships. The second parallelism is drawn from a secure base and haven relationship where secure adults tend to find more satisfaction in their relationships compared to insecure adults. Understandably, the secure adults relationship lasts longer, thrives on trust, commitment and interdependence between the adult partners who serve as secure base as they explore the world. Several studies likewise point to the fact that secure adults, in distressing situations, seek support from their partners while being able to reciprocally provide support to their distressed partners. Insecure individuals, on the other hand, exacerbate their insecurities when engaged in relational conflicts. Finally, on the matter of avoidant attachment and defense mechanisms, studies show that some fearfully-avoidant adults show that they tend to be poorly adjusted compared to dismissing avoidant adults who have better adaptation skills in emotionally-charged situations.
Attachment and successful aging
The concept of successful aging varies across cultures. The current paradigm being widely used was proposed by Rowe and Kahn (1997, p. 433) as a result of several studies on the subject matter. Their model revolves around three main components, namely, having low probability of disease and disability, with capacity for high cognitive and physical function, actively engaging in life. They explained that successful aging is
 more than the absence of disease, important though it is, and more than the maintenance of functional capacities, important as it is. Both are important components of successful aging, but it is their active combination with engagement in life that represents the concept of successful aging most fullyWhile active engagement with life takes many forms, we are most concerned with two interpersonal relations and productive activity. An activity is productive if it societal value, whether reimbursed or not.
Erik Erikson, a follower of Sigmund Freud, offers a developmental model on the various stages of development and how we change through the years. According to Eriksons psychosocial theory, each individual goes through eight psychosocial crises from infancy to mature age. Erikson defines psychosocial crisis as internal opposing conflicts or emotions and although these follow a fixed sequence, timing varies for all individuals. The goal of each individual is to attain a balance between these two opposing forces, and in the process develop virtues that provide strength  psychologically and emotionally.
As a person reaches adulthood at 30-65 years of age (middle age parenting), he  she goes through a crisis he terms as generativity versus stagnation. Erikson defines generativity from the word generation, implying parents and children and the unconditional giving that makes parental love unique. Parental love, as described by Erikson encompasses universal love, one that extends beyond ones own offspring. On the other end of the spectrum is stagnation, which results from untapped parental love and becomes self-directed instead.  When this happens, the person becomes selfish, self-indulgent, greedy, and apathetic.
Further down the line, as person matures and reaches 50 years or older (grandparent stage), he  she suffers from integrity versus despair. Integrity, as Erikson defines it, means a feeling of peace with ones self and the world he belongs to. At this stage, there are no regrets and recriminations. Despair, the opposite force of integrity, represents all the feelings of what could have been. It is at this stage when a person feels regrets on all missed opportunities and wish for another chance at life.

How to increase productivity What factors influence human being to act in a certain manner  The answer to the question is Motivation.  Motivation can be divided into tow categories  Number one, traditional motivation theory. Number two modern motivation theories.   Continuous researches are being conducted to influence human being to focus their efforts toward fulfilling the organizational objectives.

Abraham Maslow developed a motivation theory to study different categories of people and how they progress toward higher level of needs.  
Maslows hierarchy of needs was developed by Abraham Maslow in which needs are predetermined in order of importance. It has been depicted as a pyramid comprising of five levels the lowest level is associated with physiological needs, while the uppermost level is associated with self-actualization needs, particularly those related to identity and purpose.
Physiological needs
This needs relate mans basic needs.  These are common needs, fulfillment of which is absolutely essential. If these requirements are not fulfilled, people can not be motivated to perform better. 
Physiological needs include
 HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiFood o Food Food
Water
Basic things, which are essential to survive.
Lack of air and food will kill an individual. A lack of sexual activity would mean the extinction of humanity, probably explaining the strength of the sexual instinct in individuals.
Safety needs
With their physical needs met, Peoples safety needs take over and dominate their behavior. People need protection from internal and outside environment.  If fear persists in their minds they can perform better.
These have been lacking for most of human history, but at this point are mostly satisfied in the First World -- although the poor, both those who are poor as a class and those who are temporarily poor (university students would be an example), must often still address these needs.
Safety and Security needs include
Personal security
Financial security
Health and well-being
Safety net against accidentsillness and the adverse impacts
Social needs
After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third layer of human needs is social. This psychological aspect of Maslows hierarchy involves emotionally-based relationships in general, such as
 HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiFriendship o Friendship Friendship
 HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiIntimacy o Intimacy Intimacy
Having a supportive and communicative  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiFamily o Family family
Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it comes from a large social group, such as clubs, office culture,  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiReligion o Religion religious groups, professional organizations, sports teams,  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiGangs o Gangs gangs ( HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiSafety_in_numbers o Safety in numbers Safety in numbers), or small social connections (family members, intimate partners, mentors, close colleagues, confidants). They need to love and be loved (sexually and non-sexually) by others. In the absence of these elements, many people become susceptible to  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiLoneliness o Loneliness loneliness,  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiSocial_anxiety o Social anxiety social anxiety, and  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiClinical_depression o Clinical depression clinical depression. This need for belonging can often overcome the physiological and security needs, depending on the strength of the peer pressure an anorexic, for example, may ignore the need to eat and the security of health for a feeling of control and belonging.
Self Esteem
All humans have a need to be respected, to have self-esteem, self-respect. Also known as the belonging need, esteem presents the normal human desire to be accepted and valued by others. People need to engage themselves to gain recognition and have an activity or activities that give the person a sense of contribution, to feel accepted and self-valued, be it in a profession or hobby. Imbalances at this level can result in low self-esteem or an  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiInferiority_complex o Inferiority complex inferiority complex. People with low self-esteem need respect from others. They may seek fame or glory, which again depends on others. It may be noted, however, that many people with low self-esteem will not be able to improve their view of themselves simply by receiving fame, respect, and glory externally, but must first accept themselves internally. Psychological imbalances such as  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiDepression_(mood) o Depression (mood) depression can also prevent one from obtaining self-esteem on both levels.
Most people have a need for a stable self-respect and self-esteem. Maslow noted two versions of esteem needs, a lower one and a higher one. The lower one is the need for the respect of others, the need for status, recognition, fame, prestige, and attention. The higher one is the need for self-esteem, strength, competence, mastery, self-confidence, independence and freedom. The last one is higher because it rests more on inner competence won through experience. Deprivation of these needs can lead to an inferiority complex, weakness and helplessness.
Maslow stresses the dangers associated with self-esteem based on fame and outer recognition instead of inner competence. Healthy self-respect is based on earned respect.
Self-actualization
The motivation to realize ones own maximum potential and possibilities is considered to be the master motive or the only real motive, all other motives being its various forms. In Maslows hierarchy of needs, the need for self-actualization is the final need that manifests when lower level needs have been satisfied.
Maslows hierarchy is one of the first theories taught to marketing students as a basis for understanding consumers motives for action. Marketers have historically looked towards consumers needs to define their actions in the market. If producers design products meeting consumer needs, consumers will more often choose those products over those of competitors. Whichever product better fulfills this void will be chosen more frequently, thus increasing sales. This makes the model relevant to  HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiTranspersonal_business_studies o Transpersonal business studies Transpersonal business studies.
Modern Motivation theories have been developed in view of certain deficiencies in the traditional motivation theories.  Following needs are crucial under the present business atmosphere
 HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiERG_theory o ERG theory ERG theory that further expands and explains this theory.
 HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiJohn_Curtis_Gowan o John Curtis Gowan John Curtis Gowan
 HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiSelf_actualization o Self actualization Self actualization
 HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwikiMurray27s_Psychogenic_Needs o Murrays Psychogenic Needs Murrays Psychogenic Needs
 HYPERLINK httpen.wikipedia.orgwindex.phptitleWestin_Hierarchy_of_Work_Needsactioneditredlink1 o Westin Hierarchy of Work Needs (page does not exist) Westin Hierarchy of Work Needs
              These theories were proposed three decades ago.  It is essential to critically examine its applicable in the changed environment. 

Modern society has an infinite number of needs. These needs become imperative as there is a vast change in perception due to challenging situation. The business atmosphere is very sensitive. So, there is an urgent need to modify motivation theory to suit with modern business environment.

Traditional theories like Maslows Hierarchy of Needs cannot hold well under the present circumstances. So, we need to new motivation theory adapting to the change I desires and aspirations of the people.

The modern office environment proves to be important area to study human motivation. The advance technology drives the community and speed of communication.

         Case Study based on practical experience- I

Johnson Company Ltd. was a large business organization with 1000 employees at office and 500workers in the factory. David, GM, Human Resource tried to follow the traditional theories of motivation. The process of motivating the workers was absolutely slow. The target of 20 increase in output could not be fulfilled.  As the situation has been changed over the past three decades, the need for developing new motivation techniques was required.


Case Study based on practical experience

Peter Engineering Works Ltd. was a laundry company with 600 employees and 850 workers. Mr. David  GM, Personnel was entrusted with the responsibility of 30 increase in output. He followed the traditional theory of motivation to encourage workers for enhancing productivity in the factory. The result was negative. The workers did not respond positively. So he realized the need for developing new motivation formula taking into consideration the change in attitudes and interest levels of the workers.
                        Modern motivation strategy is focused toward
Interesting job
Appreciation and recognition
Ensure involvement of employees 
Achievement
Ensuring job security
Giving additional  responsibilities
Wages in accordance with prevailing market rate
Congenial working conditions
Developing team spirit
Helping people to resolve personal issues
So, traditional motivation theories are relevant, taking into consideration, changed business environment.  The need of the hour is to adopt suitable motivation strategy, depending upon the type of organization, nature of business, number of employees.  Prudent motivation techniques will not only enhance production but also increase the morale of the workers.

Sigmund Freud is a very important figure in the field of psychoanalysis. His search for a better understanding of the mind and personality led to the development of various theoretical approaches. These theories have held their ground for a long time and have been very influential in the development of thought and culture in todays society. This has happened even with the rise of several critics who have relentlessly opposed Freuds Views. One significant approach developed by Freud was his interpretation of dreams. His perspectives impress on others the characteristic interest he bore in regard to the minds activities. Most of these activities often occur in our minds without our conscious knowledge of them.
In a bid to understand the mind, Freud recognized the significance of dreams and found them to be the crucial link in deriving meaning from the minds activities. The Interpretation of Dreams, is revered as his most famous work. It is in this context that this paper seeks to analyze Freuds perception of dreams. In his book, dreams are seen as being mere structures of individuals psychological nature. He goes on further and states that dreams are quite meaningful and they can be traced to specific levels in the minds activities. Most individuals find dreams to be insignificant and to hold no meaning. However, Freud argues that there are psychological techniques which can make the interpretation and understanding of dreams quite possible.
This paper will aim at deriving a critical evaluation of three main aspects. In his view, Freud described dreams as wish fulfillment. He saw dreams as systems where individuals sought to fulfill their disguised desires through their unconscious mind. It is vital to understand why Freud sought to refer to dreams as forms of wish fulfillment. Freud also uses an objective perception as he expounds on the validity of his view and belief. As such he provides a methodological analysis of the interpretation of dreams. Using a set of illustrative examples, this paper will showcase the methods specified by Freud. The psychical apparatus was a principle which Freud used in interpreting dreams. In his work, he observed the presence of a connection between the symbols of ones conscious mind and those of the unconscious mind.  His successful interpretation of dreams was based on his understanding of an individuals psychic apparatus.
In his claim of dreams as wish fulfillment Freud conveys that dreams are not meaningless, absurd or even presuppose that a part of our minds is dormant while the other is active and awake but that they are valid psychological facets (Freud, 1900). In addition, these dreams are created through high levels of intellectual activities. Dreams are tunnels which guide individuals into their unconsciousness. The desires, emotions or fears that people are often unaware of are revealed through dreams. These important messages relayed to individuals through dreams are disguised in form of symbols. Moreover, the symbols can be seen as an individual characteristic or as a universal entity which all people experience.
In the interpretation of dreams, Freud is convinced that dreams possess ulterior motives. Their meanings go beyond the surface appearances they present. With this in mind, he proposes that individuals be presented with techniques which can allow them to repress any unwanted thoughts and instead concentrate on the associations evoked by dreams. One fundamental view which led to Freuds conclusion on dreams being factors of wish fulfillment was that according to him, wish fulfillment comprised the meaning of all dreams and that there could be no dreams other than wishful dreams. Freud also distinguished between the apparent content presented in dreams with the latent content. The manifest content depicted the actual dreams while the latent content refers to the unfulfilled wishes presented by dreams. Dreams are built from basic symbols which start out as wishes and through distortions they are represented as actual dreams. Therefore, there is an element of rejection which takes place in our minds. The conscious mind rejects the information presented in our dreams leading to the repression of that information. Following this, the mind uses dreams to convey those repressed wishes which individuals are not keen to own up to (Mendham, 2009).
There are those dreams which are completely a reflection of an individuals wishes. These dreams showcase their content and intent without any concealment. Freud thought childrens dreams to be examples of such dreams. They are not only simple and short but they can also be clearly set apart from adults dreams in that they have no distortions. They are simply cases of wish fulfillment. Freud came to this conclusion through the assessment of various childrens dreams. In all these dreams, the children were merely taking part in events where their wishes were being fulfilled and their desires satisfied. In one such dream, a young girl who grows impatient with her fathers constant promises of taking her to visit the Rohrer hut and the Hameau has her wish fulfilled in the dream in which her father finally keeps his promise (Freud, 1900). Due to the young girls impatience in her dream she predicted the fulfillment of her fathers promise. There are dreams of convenience in which at one point during the dream an individual may be partially awake. At times when these dreams manifest themselves they are accompanied by various kinds of activities which reflect a fulfillment of ones desires. In one such dream one of Freuds patients explained to him that the reason behind her constant disposal of the cooling apparatus which she was meant to wear when sleeping, was because she often dreamed of being in the opera where she was actively involved in the proceedings and since she experienced no pains she kept removing the apparatus and throwing it on the floor (Freud, 1900). Freud saw this as those instances when individuals choose to visualize happy moments and in doing so in their dreams they actively experience this happiness. As a result, just like Freuds patients they unconsciously discard those elements which cause them discomfort. This indeed would be what they would want to do while conscious.
With the belief that dreams are inclined to interpretations, Freud devised particular methods which would guide individuals in deriving meaning from dreams. Freud disputed scientific methods which sought to interpret dreams and labeled them as ones which do not allow for this concept to take root. Dream interpretation is seen as the assigning of meaning to dreams. According to Freud scientific methods cannot accomplish this because initially they do not recognize dreams as forms of psychic activities. Freud preferred the use of unscientific techniques and came up with two particular methods which he saw fit to use in the interpretation of dreams. They include the symbolic dream interpretation and the cipher method (Freud, 1990).
The symbolic dream interpretation technique encompasses the content of dreams as a holistic element. As such, this method aims at replacing the dreams content with content which is seen as intelligible and quite logical. Basically, dreams are replaced with symbols which provide an intense meaning to the individual. Unlike the sort of disguise expected in dreams, this symbolic interpretation provides a clear implication of these dreams. Moreover, this method assumes that there is a futuristic element in dreams. The ideas of such dreams are concerned with the future at length and translate them into interpretations which depict future occurrences. There are no identifiable demonstrations on how individuals envisage such symbolic interpretations and this is only attributed to mere intuition. In the exemplification of such dream interpretations, Freud refers to biblical dreams which offered symbolic meanings. One such dream is that which predicted the occurrence of famine for seven years in Egypt. In this dream, the replaced content is that of the appearance of cows in Egypt. At first there were seven fat cows, and then these cows were devoured by other seven lean cows (Freud, 1900).
On the other hand, the cipher method completely disregards the claims implied by the symbolic interpretation method. This technique assumes that dreams are sets of secret codes in which signs are given known meanings which are only applicable to those individual signs. In this aspect the dreams content is divided into parts which are then assigned meanings individually. The remaining element is for the individual to create their own connections to the meanings they have derived by deciphering the dream. Any future connotations are to be made by the individual. Freud assumes the interpretation of dreams to be a mechanical transfer of factors. This method was developed base on the ensuing aspect of distorted and confused dreams which were seen to be fragmented. As a result, they sought to provide special attention to each of the dreams fragments. In addition, this method depends mainly on the availability of the key and the dream interpretation book which contains the signs and their specific interpretations.
These methods presented inconclusive measures for the interpretation of dreams and Freud saw it fit for him to derive a more realistic and fundamental method of interpreting dreams. The psychoanalytic method devised by Freud sought to derive meanings from dreams through a series of procedures. Initially through a serene environment individuals are prompted to give accounts of their dreams, through this method one can trace these dreams back from a point in the individuals memory (Chiriac, 2009). This aimed at treating the dreams as particular symptoms of other unknown issues inflicting the person. Freud applied this method with his patients and in doing so his first goal was to ensure that the individual concentrated highly in the process. They were also meant to rid themselves of any inherent criticism or other negative elements which would lead to the rejection of any upcoming views or issues in the subconscious mind. The main agenda for doing this is to ensure one is in a complete psychic state which allows for the surfacing of the real interpretations of dreams. The energy often used in dreams where ones undesired views are created and then repressed, is used in this procedure as a tool for enhancing these undesired ideas into an individuals surface and transformed into desired thoughts (Freud, 1900). The method developed by Freud implies that the content of dreams can only be analyzed by paying attention to individual sections of the dream as opposed to the whole content.
Freud appreciates that the use of latent content in the interpretation of dreams completely disregards the manifest content which is also significant in the process of dream interpretation. The dream thoughts which are represented by the latent content together with the dream contents all create a description of the two forms of dream contents. Dream thoughts are seen to be more direct in interpretation as while dream content has to undergo a deciphering process for interpretation. In explaining the different concepts which arise from analyzing the modes of dream work, Freud establish the following aspects condensation, displacement and representation.
Condensation refers to the fact that the dream content is only a small and limited entity which would not amount to extended lengths. It is seen as such especially in comparison with the dream thoughts which being an interpretation of the content are quite lengthy and wide. However, this comparison is subject to different dreams and situations. Actually, it is not quite possible for one to claim to have interpreted a dream completely or even give specific accounts of the amounts of time they spent dreaming. There are often times when individuals may have the impression that they spent most of their time while asleep dreaming, yet upon awaking they cannot detail the dreams content. In regard to displacement, some elements found in the dream content are often lost when in reference to dream thoughts. This can be attributed to the psychic force which is expressed in the dream work. On one hand, it strips those important elements found in the dream content and instead elevates the minute factors in the dream thoughts (Freud, 1900).  It is through these two forms of analysis that makes it possible for the interpretation of dreams. When both the dream thoughts and contents are found to be closely associated then they are represented as intimate correspondences of the dream thoughts. Thus through the representation of such relations, interpretation of dreams has been made possible.
    As implied by Freud, dreams showcase various dynamic of the subconscious mind. This makes them very crucial in the field of psychoanalysis as they are used in understanding the underlying factors behind and individuals problems. The physical apparatus developed by Freud can be used to analyze and interpret dreams. This model showcases the interactions present within and individuals mind. The conscious and unconscious minds contribute to the conflicts which may manifest in individuals dreams. According to (Bucci, 1997), conflicts arise from the mental forces of these systems. The unconscious mind seeks to elevate itself while the conscious mind works against this and seeks to repress and delay it. Dreams are normally an interaction between the subconscious state and the conscious state. It is while in a mode of relaxation that individuals experience various levels of consciousness. Through this process dreams occur. Freud believed that individuals are capable of negotiating hidden desires within the conscious and subconscious while dreaming (Fine, 2009). It is through this perception that he came to the conclusion that dreams are a representation of unfulfilled wishes.
    Freuds psychical apparatus can be used to analyze the concept of dreams and dream interpretation. Initially, an individuals dreams are found within the id. These dreams are usually derived from ones psychic energy and often initiated by making childhood memory recollections. These processes often remain buried in the subconscious mind as a way of safeguarding the individual. The psychic energy otherwise referred to as libido is the drive which causes dreams. It is found within the id and regulates and individuals sexual desires. Moreover, it remains the primary element behind the concept of dreams. Childhood recollections imply the presence of restrictions, unacceptable wishes and prohibitions which are deeply engraved in the unconscious mind.
    After the initial stage, there is the occurrence of latent content which becomes regulated by the superego in order to prevent the individual from being subjected to disturbing content. Situations which create this content often stimulate an individuals childhood memories. Furthermore, the latent content also offers protection to the individual from the presence of explicit interpretations of the id. These wishes can be disguised or present themselves as actual occurrences. The concept of dreaming is usually based on the subconscious wish which is found in the latent content. Therefore, by unraveling this unconscious wish through free association, dreams can be interpreted. As pointed out earlier, this stage provides for the dream work process. Through condensation, representation and displacement the dream is exhibited.    The aspect of displacement is normally relevant in dream interpretation because it can be representatives of actual people or time. It links an individuals relationships together. An individual is able to associate particular elements in their dreams with specific objects which are real.
During the elaboration stage, there is a continued negotiation which occurs between the subconscious and the conscious and it is this which prompts the dream into ones memory after they have woken up. The inability to remember some dreams is because only some dreams are consciously accessible to individuals. Often they remain in the subconscious mind. The ones which are easily remembered are usually those which were dreamt immediately before an individuals awakening. After the dreams realization, it is interpreted through ones recollection of their mental activities which through free association can be derived from the unconscious mind.
Freud used the method of free association in the interpretation of dreams. This technique requires individuals to verbalize the various images which arise during the analysis of particular content or object in a dream. The associations made by individuals are further analyzed in order to derive a meaning of the object under observation. The use of this technique is mainly vital in helping individuals to confront the conflicting emotions depicted by the object found in their dreams. Dreams are also crucial in unraveling the elements of specific personalities, traumas, or even inner struggles exhibited in individuals. Therefore, psychotherapy can apply the concept of dreams to uncover an individuals actual feelings which are usually rooted in the unconscious mind.
From the above discussion the factors behind Freuds perception of dreams as wish fulfillment have been tackled. Freud sought to imply that dreams arise from the hidden desires which are found within our subconscious mind and which can only be manifested through dreams. Through the illustration of various scenarios, Freud set out to evaluate various methods which are used in the interpretation of dreams. The mentioned methods are symbolic interpretation method and ciphering method. Later on Freud formulated his own method in order to cater for the deficiencies which were reflected in these two methods. It is thus that the free association technique was borne. The psychical apparatus has also been shown to follow the elements of Freuds dream interpretation with the essence of the dream place on the interactions which occur among the id, ego, and superego, conscious and subconscious minds. Freuds work is fundamental in the practice of psychoanalysis today and its continued influence will amount to future successes in the field of psychology.

Leaning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior through experience and practice.  Learning occurs in different ways and in different patterns. However, several theories and theoretical explanations do exist in the verge of explaining and defining learning in a more logical manner. Various psychological theories have been posed by different scholars in explaining the process of learning and knowledge construction. For instance, there are cognitive theories, social behavioral theories, psychoanalytic theories and the like. However, all these broad categories exist in one way or another in trying to explain human behavior and more so mental processes, knowledge construction and learning. Each broad category of these theories   has got unique theoretical explanations and beliefs on how human beings learn and acquire knowledge (Kohn, 2001).
For the purpose of this, more focus will be emphasized on creating an understanding of how human beings learn through a thorough exploration of the behaviorists theories who explain the process in which human beings learn from an environmental perspective. Behaviorist is a group of theories who believe that human behavior is shaped by environmental experiences and influences which results to learning. Behaviorists believe that the environment plays the most critical influences in human learning and shaping of the human personality structure and behavior (Michael, 2006). There are three prominent behaviorist theorists who have highly been accredited for their scholarly work in presenting different theoretical overviews based on how human beings learn, and the influences the environment posses on their learning process. Thus, according to behaviorists the environment is the most sole determinant of human behavior and the learning process.
The environment can be enriched to enhance learning while on the other hand the environment can be impoverish and hinder learning. In this reference, the paper offers an analysis the work of Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson and B .F Skinner and their theories on classical and operant conditioning. The three theorists hold similar hypothesis and ideologies towards the process in which human beings learn and acquire knowledge.
Classical conditioning is an important type of learning that was actually discovered accidentally be Ivan Pavlov way back in the year 1849- 1936 with his great experiment with dogs. Ivan Pavlov was a Russian psychologist who is considered to be the founder of the classical conditioning theories while doing his research based on understanding the digestive systems and patters in dogs. Evan Pavlov staged an experiment with dogs which were restrained in an experimental chamber (Kohn, 2001).  Evan Pavlov began presenting meat powder to the dogs at the same time observing their responses through the use tubes which had been inserted into the body system through various organs in order to measure bodily responses elicited by such stimuli. 
Pavlov discovered that whenever he presented the food to the dogs they begun to salivate way before the food was presented at hand. The dogs even began salivating way before the person holding the food entered the room. Pavlov gained a lot interest into this kind of phenomena and gave it his attention to discover the hidden truths behind it and abandoned his initial experiment on the digestive patterns in dogs.  Fascinated by this new phenomena, Ivan Pavlov begun pairing the food with a sound just before the meat powder was be presented to the dogs (Edward  Miller, 2004). He would ring a bell any time before presenting the food to the dog, and he realized that dogs would salivate at anytime when food was presented and a bell rung as well. The experience was even more fascinating and after presentencing the paired experiences (food and bell) several times, through observation of responses Ivan realized that dogs would salivate towards the stimuli.
 Ivan later with drew the food and begun to ring the bell alone. He observed that even after withdrawing the food dogs would also salivate. It was from this analysis and experience with dogs that Ivan Pavlov drew a conclusion based on his experience on classical conditioning. Ivan labeled this kind of phenomena the psychic reflexes (Brown  Nancy, 2002). Through this experiences Ivan developed the stimulus response connection bonds which form the basis for learning. Ivan coined in the idea of stimulus response reactions in relation to learning. Meat powder alone would cause the dogs to salivate just by sensing its smell. Meat powder would naturally trigger salivation in dogs and he referred this as an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), while the natural salivation response he called it Unconditioned response (UCR) respectively. The bell and salivation were however not naturally occurring therefore, dogs got conditioned to responding to the bell any time it was rung (Michael, 2006). Ivan referred the bell to as conditioned stimulus (CS), while salivation caused by the bell was referred to as conditioned response (CR).
From this experience Ivan drew the Stimulus response theory (S-R Connections) where he explained that, natural stimulus from the environment elicits natural responses.  That is to say, unconditioned stimulus (UCS) elicits unconditioned responses (UCR). While on the other hand conditioned stimulus (CS) elicits conditioned responses (CR).


   

Thus, through paring of events the dogs became conditioned to the sound of the bell such that they would respond to it even without the food being presented them.
In order to confirm whether these principles could be applied on human subjects Ivans ideas were further expanded by John B. Watson.  John B Watson applied these ideas on human subjects to in order to confirm Pavlovs hypothesis ((Michael, 2006). Watson staged his ideas by studying an eleven month old child known as baby Albert.  His goal for the study was to condition baby Albert to fear and become afraid of white teddy bears. So just like Pavlov, he presented a white teddy bear to baby Albert which he developed and formed interest with. With time Watson began paring the white teddy bear with a loud jarring sound (UCS) anytime before the bear was presented to the child.
                At first before paring the variables, baby Albert showed no fear or any sign of fear. After several pairings of the bear with the jarring sound, Albert developed fear for all teddy bears which were white in color (Kohn, 2001). The loud noise represented (UCS) while the induced fear represented (UCR). The implications for the study suggested that by use of classical conditioning phobia can be created in human beings the someway Ivan conditioned dogs to salivate without food. Human beings produce both automatic and involuntary responses to both natural and neutral stimulus (Roche, 2005). This kind of classical conditioning is other words known as respondent conditioning. Both animals and human being learn through forming association between events.
               That is when one event occurs another is bound to occur shortly after. Human beings learn mastery of concepts through paring and association of events. For instance, during childhood transitions from home to school, children may develop interest with the school environment or hatred depending on the prevailing circumstance (Edward  Miller, 2004). A welcoming school environment enriched with adequate play materials will adequately invite the child. This kind of an environment replaces the home environment as the child pairs the school with good experiences. However, in classroom learning teachers develop different thematic contents in the process of teaching by pairing them with good experiences in order to reinforce learning (Michael, 2006).  For example, at preschool years, teachers make use of songs, poems, and demonstrations to introduce and accompany learning. In mathematics skills teachers device short mathematics songs to aid children in mastering number counting skills. Any time the teachers introduces the subject with such kind of a song, it triggers the learners mind that it is mathematics time (Kohn, 2001). Through this kind of teaching children form interest with the subject which consequently leads to mastery of the concepts.
               In hunger stricken areas especially where schools have feeding programs for young children children tend to forms interest with the school environment due to the kind of rewards it offers. Children learn to associate the school environment with pleasing experiences. As a result this leads to improvement in performance and consequently reduction of absenteeism and school drop out. Thus, the environment is the greatest shaper of human behavior and experiences (Brown  Nancy, 2002). Environment can be altered to make human beings what you want them to be. Thus the environment is flexible and it can be enriched to impoverish to make man become what you want him to be.
               Besides Pavlov and Watson, skinners presented yet a similar ideal based on classical conditioning which demonstrated how human beings  gets to learn through the use of various principles in the environment such as reinforcement and consequences. Skinner called his experiment the operant conditioning theory.  He staged his experiment with a pigeon howl which was kept in a cage. Inside the cage he placed an electric lever which had some food pallets (Roche, 2005).  The pigeon howl was denied access to the external environment therefore on becoming hungry it began jumping up and down inside the cage. Instantaneously, it would jump and hit the electric lever, and anytime the lever was hit food would pour on the ground.
             At very first time it was purely incidental and the pigeon did not intend to hit the lever. Food poured down and the pigeon ate all the grains that had poured on the floor. Repeated Instantaneous actions of hitting the lever made the bird to form a close relationship between the action and the food lever which poured food any time when hit (Edward  Miller, 2004). Thus, the bird learned that anytime when hungry it could hit the electric food lever intentionally, and food would pour on the floor. The bird learnt to associate actions with experiences which follow them.  Thus, human beings apply the same principles developed by Skinner in learning and shaping behavior.
            Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which human behaviors are altered by nature of the consequences which succeed the action. Rewards and punishment occurring within the environment help in shaping and structuring human behavior (Kohn, 2001). According to Skinner, he devised four possible consequences of behavior which may occur or succeed actions.
a)  Positive Reinforcement - positive reinforcement promotes elicitation of positive behavior. If a person does something good, and he she is confronted with a positive response then that behavior is bound to recur. Positive reinforcement exists in the form of rewards and positive appraisals. Positive reinforcement forms the basic foundation for all conditioning (Roche, 2005).
(b) Negative reinforcement  this involves the removal of overt behaviors when an action has been performed through eliciting a bad consequence. Negative reinforcement occurs when an overt action is succeeded by a negative response. For example, when a child abuses another one in class and he she is ridiculed by others, the behavior is likely to decline and cease completely. Negative reinforcement is one of the very best methods of behavior modification which makes use of non violent means to correct overt actions.
c) Positive punishment -   Positive punishment includes presentation of a bad consequence immediately a response occurs. For instance in a family set up a child hits a brother the parents responds by spanking child (Roche, 2005).
d) Negative punishment  this entails the removal of good consequences or actions after a behavior has been elicited. For example, a child fails to drink tea in order to go to school and the mother refrains from dropping himher to school.
             Therefore, Skinner believed that given a child he can make it what you want it to be. Positive reinforcements can be used to shape behavior while negative punishment can be used to eliminate unwanted behavior. Vicarious learning is also possible and it occurs through watching and observing consequences of action performed by others. Therefore, behaviorists believe that human beings learn through environmental experiences. Environment can be structured to enhance or inhibit learning.  Learning occurs through pairing and association of events and experiences. Environmental reinforcements and rewards can be used to encourage or eliminate behavior.

Generalised anxiety disorder (GAD) is defined separately by two diagnostic criteria ICD-10 and DSM-IV. In both criteria, GAD is defined by its main symptom being prominent tension, worry, and feelings of apprehension about everyday events and problems in the ICD-10 or excessive anxiety and worry about a number of events or activities that is difficult to control in the DSM-IV (Tyrer  Baldwin, 2006, p.2157).
To differentiate GAD from other anxiety-related diagnoses, additional criteria were added. GAD is now distinguished as chronic excessive anxiety of 6 months duration or longer that interfere with normal functioning in school, work or the family (Lucey, 2005). Specific symptoms involved general, physiological, mental and sleep-related states. Both criteria agree on restlessness, the inability to relax or muscle tension as characterizing general states. Additionally, the ICD-10 included other symptoms namely hot flushes or cold chills, numbness or tingling sensations, aches and pains and difficulty swallowing while the DSM-IV added easy fatigability and irritability (Tyrer  Baldwin, 2006).
Only the ICD-10 specified physiological symptoms that are classified into autonomic arousal manifested by palpitations, sweating, trembling and dryness in the mouth and chestabdomen manifested by difficulty of breathing, chest pain, feeling of choking and nausea (Lucey, 2005). In regard to mental states, the ICD-10 specified symptoms of dizziness, depression and the fears of losing control or dying while the DSM-IV specified difficulty concentrating and mind going blank. Only the DSM-IV has a criterion regarding sleep, this being difficulty falling or staying asleep or sleep that is restless and unsatisfying.  In making a diagnosis, ICD-10 requires a minimum of three specific symptoms that includes one autonomic arousal symptom while the DSM-IV requires three symptoms at the least (Tyrer  Baldwin, 2006). In children and adolescents, only one specific symptom is necessary when using DSM-IV (Willacy, 2008).
Finally exclusion criteria added reliability to diagnosis. GAD is inferred if client symptoms do not fit into panic disorder, phobic anxiety disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, hypochondriasis, separation anxiety disorder, anorexia nervosa, somatisation disorder or post-traumatic stress disorder (Tyrer  Baldwin, 2006). Further, anxiety symptoms should not be the effect of physiological or developmental disorders, brain damage, medications, substance abuse, psychotic states or mood disorders.
According to Emslie (2008), GAD is one of three common anxiety disorders that affect 6 to 20 of children and adolescents (n.p.). GAD that occurs in childhood and adolescence is most often undiagnosed and untreated because of the inability of children to verbalize their physiological and mental states and the notion that anxiety is normal in children. Childhood onset without treatment leads to a poor prognosis as extreme anxiety often results in avoidance as a way of coping as when children refuse to attend school (Vidair  Gunlicks-Stoessel, 2009). This does not resolve the problem so that it tends to be chronic and as children go through changes that involve uncertainty, loss or threat later in life, other anxiety disorders and major depression develop along with GAD which together result in worse prognosis (Lucey, 2005).
Later in life, normal social and cognitive development is hampered. Various physiological ailments also develop. Social disability is one outcome of recurrent GAD. Among adults with a single diagnosis of GAD, 27 develop mild to moderate social disability while in those who also suffer co-morbid depression, this rate profoundly increases to 59 (Ma, et.al., 2009). Somatic pain from chronic tension is another effect of GAD. In adults, anxiety increases the likelihood of experiencing chronic body pains that make daily functioning more difficult and decreases response to treatments (Teh, et. al., 2009). Diabetes, peptic ulcers, irritable bowel disease and symptoms involving the heart are also common health outcomes of untreated GAD (Hoffman, Dukes  Wittchen, 2008).        
GAD is addressed through pharmacologic therapy and psychotherapy with cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) as the current treatment of choice in both adults and children (Kehle, 2008). However, numerous placebo-controlled studies involving adult participants highlight the greater effectiveness of combining CBT with drug therapy especially in the long-term and in preventing recurrence as opposed to using either CBT or drugs (Tyrer  Baldwin, 2006). Pure drug therapy using selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) and benzodiazepines among others is primarily recommended only for acute GAD episodes.

A large-sample study, lauded as the first randomized clinical trial focusing on pediatric anxiety, confirmed the effectiveness of combination therapy in children. Using CBT and an SSRI, there was an 81 improvement in anxiety among those who received both CBT and SSRI compared to 60 in those who obtained CBT only and 55 in those who relied solely on SSRI (Vidair  Gunlicks-Stoessel, 2009). Those under placebo treatment had only 24 improvement.
In responding to GAD and depressive disorder co-morbidities in children and adolescents, a pilot study proved the effectiveness of CBT that addressed both anxiety and depression in 60 children (Vidair  Gunlicks-Stoessel, 2009). The treatment consisted of 8 sessions spread over a 3-month period in a primary care setting. Results were compared to a control group given outside referral and showed that among those who underwent CBT, there was a significantly greater reduction in anxiety and depression symptoms . 
Although combination therapy for GAD has been proven in clinical trial settings, research is needed to determine effectiveness in actual situations especially primary health care settings. This will take into account health care provider training and available resources that establish the capacity to provide care for GAD patients. Additionally, the effectiveness of other therapies should also be considered for study.

Rational emotive behavior therapy is an active directive and comprehensive philosophical based psychotherapy which is aimed at resolving and directing both emotional and behavioral problems that causes an individual to be disturbed (Wilde, 1995). This therapy enables individual with emotional and behavioral problems to live a happier and a fulfilling live. The rational emotive behavior therapy was developed by an American psychotherapist and psychologist by the name Albert Ellis who was inspired by the teachings of the modern philosophers of Asia, Greek and Rome (Palmer, S.  Burton, 1996). REBT is one of the first forms of cognitive behavioral therapy which is aimed at solving problems that concerns the dysfunctions of emotions, behavioral problems and cognitions through a systematic procedure. REBT is both a psychotherapeutic system of theory and practices and the school of thought (Palmer, S.  Burton, 1996).
Historical perspective
REBT was originally called the rational therapy and was established in the year 1955 by Albert Ellis (Rob, 2001). It was later revised to rational emotive therapy in the year 1959 then to rational emotive behavior therapy in 1992. As a result of the reputation of Albert on sexual and marital relationship problems, he discovered that he could help other individual with emotional and behavioral problems (Palmer, S.  Burton, 1996). It is a psychotherapeutic system of theory and Practices and a school of thought which was originally called rational therapy, it changed to rational emotive therapy and later to rational emotive behavior. REBT was one of the first of the cognitive behavior therapies that were predicated in articles Ellis first published in 1956. REBT is one of cognitive behavioral therapies developed separately which have similarities with cognitive therapy developed by psychiatrist Aaron Beck (Palmer, S.  Burton, 1996). REBT has changed and developed over the past century
Theories of REBT
Rational emotive behavior is not only a set of technical process but it also includes a comprehensive theory of the human behavior with regards to the changes in the environment (Rob, 2001). The therapy process is also a biopsychosocial process which is the understanding of biological, psychological and social changes of an individual in the response to certain stimuli. In the fundamental premises of REBT, humans emotion and behavioral theories is that almost all human emotion and behaviors are the result of what people think, assume or believe and also about situation they face. REBT (Palmer, S.  Burton, 1996). However, he argued that a person biology affects their feelings and behaviors in addition their are limitation to how far a human being can change according to theory of change human does not get upset by unfortunate adversities, but also in constructing their views of reality in their own language, in different beliefs meanings and philosophies about the world, themselves and others. They usually learn and begin to apply this need by learning the A-B-C-model of psychological disturbance and change, where by A, represent activating event that contributes to disturbed and dysfunctional emotional and behavioral C represents emotion and behaviors that follow from those evaluative beliefs consequences, B represent behaviors that follow from this inference or believe. A, adversity can be either both an external or internal event or satiation, and it sometimes refer to an event (Palmer, S.  Burton, 1996)
in the past, presents, beliefs are most important in the A-B-C model and are philosophical meanings and assumptions about events, personal desires, and preferences (Ellis,  Dryden, 1997). Bs, beliefs consist of highly evaluative and of interrelated and integrated cognitive, emotional and behavioral aspects and dimensions. But according to REBT, it state that if a persons evaluative B, belief about the A, activating event is rigid, absolutistic and dysfunctional, the C, consequence emotional and behavioral is likely to be self-defeating and destructive, alternatively, if a persons evaluative B, belief is flexible and constructive, the C, the emotional and behavioral consequence is likely to be self-helping and constructive (Rob, 2001). By understanding the role of their mediating, evaluative and philosophically based illogical, unrealistic and self-defeating meanings, interpretations and assumptions in upset, through REBT people often can learn to identify them, begin to D, which mean dispute, refute, challenge and question them and distinguish them from healthy constructs, and subscribe to more constructive and self-helping constructs (Rob, 2001). Its framework assumes that humans have both social-helping and constructive and also social defeating and un-helpful habit and leanings (Ellis,  Dryden, 1997). It also claims that people to a large extend cause emotional difficulties such as self-blame, self-pity, clinical anger, hurt, guilt, shame, depression and anxiety, and behaviors and behavior habits like procrastination, over-compulsiveness, avoidance, addiction and withdrawal by the means of their irrational and self-defeating thinking, emotion and behaving.
         REBT is applied as an educational processes where by therapist often actively or defectively teaches the client on how to identify irrational and self-defeating beliefs and philosophies (Ellis,  Dryden, 1997). These in nature are very strong, extreme, unrealistic, illogical and absolutist, which in turn actively question and dispute them and replace them with ones which are self helping. By using different cognitive, emotive and behavioral methods and activities, the therapist can help the client, to gain a more rational, self-helping and constructive rational way of thinking, emoting and behaving (Ellis,  Dryden, 1997). The main objectives in REBT is to show the client that whenever unpleasant and unfortunate activating events occur in peoples lives, they can have another way of making themselves feel healthily and self-helpingly sorry, disappointed, frustrated, and annoyed, or making themselves feel unhealthily and self-defeating horrified, terrified, panicked, depressed, self-hating, and self-pitying (Palmer, S.  Burton, 1996). By attaining and ingraining a more rational and self-constructive philosophy of themselves, others and the world, people often are more likely to behave and emote in more life-serving and adaptive ways.
     Insight 1 is where People see and accept the reality that their emotional disturbances at point C and also activating events or adversities at point A that precede C. Although A contributes to C (Palmer, S.  Burton, 1996). There are strong negative which are much more likely to be followed by disturbed Cs than they are to be followed by weak the main direct cores of extreme and dysfunctional emotional disturbances (Cs) are where peoples irrational beliefs, people strong believe about their undesirable activating events are attributed and accompanied by inferences in their absolutistic certainty (Ellis,  Dryden, 1997).
Insight 2  state that it does not matter how, when, and why people acquire beliefs which are the main cause of their dysfunctional emotional-behavioral consequence (Palmer, S.  Burton, 1996). They tend to hold irrational belief and continue confusing themselves with these thoughts, not because they held them in the past, but because they still actively hold them in the present, though often in their minds and hearts they still follow the core philosophies they adopted or invented long ago (Palmer, S.  Burton, 1996).
Insight 3 this state that no matter how well they have achieved insight 1 and 2, insight alone will by fewer chances make people forget their emotional disturbances They may feel better when one knows, or thinks how they became disturbed because insights can give the impression of being useful and curative (Ellis,  Dryden, 1997). But, unless they accept insights 1 and 2, and then also go on to strongly apply insight 3 they will actually get better in reality there is no way one can get better and stay better unless by doing continual work and practice in looking and finding, ones core irrational beliefs actively, energetically, and scientifically disputing them replacing ones absolutist musts with flexible preferences changing ones unhealthy feelings to healthy, self-helping emotions and firmly acting against ones dysfunctional fears and compulsions. one can significantly remove this behavior by a combing cognitive, emotive, and behavioral, as well as a quite persistent and forceful attack on ones serious emotional problems (Ellis,  Dryden, 1997). REBT assumes that human thinking, emotion, and action are not really separate or disparate processes, but they all significantly overlap and are rarely experienced in a pure state emotions and behaviors significantly influence and affect thinking, just as thinking influences emotions and behaviors. Evaluating is a fundamental characteristic of human organisms and seems to work in a kind of closed circuit with a feedback mechanism
Theory of causation
This theory seeks to explain the combination of biological, psychological and social factors that are involved in the way individuals feel and behave (Ellis,  Dryden, 1997). It explains that most of the human emotions and behaviors is as a result of what the individuals think, assume or belief about themselves, other people and the world in general. The theory claims that what causes the changes in emotions and behavior are what people believe about the situations they face that will determine how they feel and behave and not the direct situation itself (Ellis,  Dryden, 1997). It also argues that the biology of an individual will determine their feelings and behavior. The Ellis ABC model illustrates the roles of cognitions. A is used to represent an event or experienced and the individuals interpretation, B represents the belief that follows the interpretation and C represents the emotions and behaviors that accompany the evaluation of the beliefs. An example is An individual meets a friend but the friend did not notice him or her, then he believes that the friend has deliberately assumed him and concludes that he or she is unacceptable to friends (Ellis,  Dryden, 1997).
Theory of change
This theory seeks to explain the changes an individual goes through as a result of the perceptions and believes that follows an event or experience (Olevitch, 1995). For instance, one might believe that he or she is not wanted in a given environment he therefore goes and changes his or her daily routine including eating habits, exercising and even the entire lifestyle in order to feel comfortable. An individual might also avoid contact with somebody he thinks he dislikes
Applications of REBT
The Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy has always been used to help individuals with a wide range of clinical and non clinical problems using a diverse range of modalities. People with mental disorders that affect their response to the environment have been successfully helped as a result of this therapy process    (Ellis,  Dryden, 1997). The clinical applications of this therapy involves enabling people suffering from depression to behave normally and happier. Moreover, people with anxiety disorders which include obsessive compulsive disorders, agoraphobia, phobias and post traumatic disorders as a result of sexual abuse, accidence or adjustment to chronic health problems, physical disability and mental disorders have been treated as a result of the systematic process of this therapy. It is also important to note that people with behavior problems like violence, sexual behavioral problems can be assisted by the use of this therapy (Froggat, 2005).
    Non clinical applications include helping individual to cope with the changes in the environment and personal growth (Olevitch, 1995). The therapy contains certain detailed and systematic principles like enlightened self interest, self acceptance and risk taking. This process enables individuals to develop and act on a more efficient and functional philosophy of life. It also enables individuals in workplace to be more pro active and effective (Dryden, 2001). The rational effectiveness training has been widely used in workplace organizations.
The process of therapy 
When dealing with individual with emotional and behavioral problems, it is imperative for a therapist to have the standardized systematic process in order to handle the situation effectively and efficiently (Wilde, 1995). The first in process of therapy is by engaging client to build a relationship and this can be achieved by using the core condition of empathy, warmth and respect.  In most instances, an individual with this problem may engage in secondary disturbance like self downing over having problem about coming to the therapist (Froggat, 2005). It is also possibly the best way for engaging the client for REBT to demonstrate that change is possible and that REBT is able to assist them achieve where goals.  The second step of the therapy is by accessing person with this disorder and the situations that varies from person to person (Misc. 2004). These can achieve by client viewing what is wrong for them especially by checking for any secondary disturbance and does the client feels about this problem then carry out general assessment by determining the presence of any clinical disorders, obtain a personal and social history accesses the severity of the problem, note any relevant personality factor, and check for any non psychological causative factors, physical condition, medication, substance abuse, and finally the environmental factors (Wilde, 1995). The third step is preparing the client for therapy by clarifying treatment goals and by ensuring that these are or to know what the problem is that is specific and agreed by both the client and therapist (Froggat, 2005). Then assess the clients motivation to change, also you introduced client to discussion about the basis of REBT including the biopsychosocial model of causation and also the approaches to be used and implications of treatment then develop a contract (Dryden,  Neenan, 2005). Fourthly by implementing the treatment program and this occur in implementation phased by using activities such as analyzing specific episodes where target problem occur ascertaining belief involved, changing them and developing home work (Ellis, et al 1975).  
 It is also imperative to develop behavioral assignments in order to modify and improve way of behavior of an individual (Ellis, et al 1975). Other supplementary strategies like relaxation training are also important when dealing with an individual with emotional and behavioral problems. The fifth one is evaluating the progress of the client towards the end of intervention to check whether there are improvement as a result of the significant changes in the client thinking and their external circumstances. Sixth one is by preparing the client for termination to setbacks because many people after a period of wellness think that they are cured for life (Froggat, 2005). Consequently, when they slip back and discover the past problems are still present to some extend they are likely to give up working on themselves (Ellis, et al 1975). Warn this scenario occurs, it is likely for many individuals with emotional and behavioral problems and ensure that they know what to do when symptoms comes back. It is also important to discuss their views on asking for help if needed if needed in future and deal with any irrational beliefs about coming back like l should be cured for ever (Wilde, 1995).   
  
Research foundation section
REBT and CBT in general have a substantial and strong research base that verify and support the efficiency psychotherapeutic and theoretical underpinnings (Ellis, et al 1975). Scientific empirical studies have proven that REBT is an effective and efficient treatment for different kinds of psychopathology, conditions and problems, where by REBT and CBT are supported effectively by vast amount of outcome- and experimental studies. Randomized clinical trials about REBT have offered a positive view on the efficacy of REBT (Miller, 2002). Theory investigation in the field of psychotherapy and a large amount of clinical experience and other body of modern psychological research have allowed and come up with many of REBTs theoretical assumptions on personality and psychotherapy where some critiques have been given on some of the clinical research done on REBT from within and by others. For instance Albert Ellis emphasized on the difficulty and complexity of measuring effectiveness of psychotherapeutic (Dryden,  Neenan, 2005). This is because many studies only tend to measure whether clients feel better after therapy instead of getting and staying better. Ellis also argued with other clinician about misunderstanding misconstrued in research and in general about the REBT theory (Ellis, 2001). Some have criticized REBT for being harsh, formulaic and failing to address deep underlying problems. REBT theorist who has pointed out that studying of REBT carefully shows that it is philosophically deep, humanistic and individualized collaboratively by working on the basis of the clients point of reference (Ellis, 2001). They further pointed out that emotive experiential, interrelated and methodology of cognitive and behavioral intervention utilizes REBT integration. While others question REBTs view about rationality, radical constructivists who have claimed that reason and logic are subjective properties and those who believe that reason can be objectively determined (Miller, 2002). REBT theorists about objections to clients irrational choices and conclusions as a working hypothesis and through collaborative efforts that demonstrate the irrationality on practical, functional and social consensual grounds was refuted because of rise of claims maintaining REBT (Dryden,  Neenan, 2005).