Psychology

Changes and problems in adolescence

Physical changes

Adolescence is the stage of rapid physical and psychological changes. The course of speedy physical changes in adolescence is known as puberty.  For girls puberty comes earlier than boys. The process starts gradually mostly at 11 years for girls and 13 years for boys. The age at which puberty starts has been reducing probably due to the changes in nutrition. The hormone changes that cause the changes in adolescence begin sometime earlier before the physical changes take effect. The hormones might lead to periods of low moods and restlessness. Girls start experiencing the changes earlier than boys and mostly appear to be maturing faster than boys. At the puberty stage, girls start getting their menstrual periods and there is growth of hair under-arm and pubic parts. Boys break their voice, that is, their voice becomes deeper and they grow body, pubic and facial hair and start experiencing erections and wet dreams. Both girls and boys go through rapid physical growth. At the age of seventeen, they are young men and women who may be bigger than their parents. At this stage, they are actually capable of siring children of their own. At this stage, most adolescents begin getting concerned with their appearance.  Weight is a problem with the adolescents. If an adolescent is overweight and the others make fun of it, they are likely to get depressed. This can cause inactivity and discomfort in feeding which can aggravate the situation. There are some who result to dieting causing a bigger health problem.  

Psychological changes

At the adolescence stage, people start to feel and think differently. They start being independent of the immediate family members, starting to establish friendships and relationships with their peers. They stop relying on parents for the psychological support their parents become less significant in their eyes as their associations outside the family build up. They start arguing with their parents more often. This is because they have come up with their own views that oftenly conflict with those of their parents. The adolescents spend most of the time with each other, or having telephone conversations with each other. They also start selecting their own clothes and develop different modes of dressing. They are still more likely to retain their values from their families especially those that respect their families. All the same, clothes and appearance become a way of articulating solidarity with friends.

As they become more independent from their parents, the adolescent tend to experiment new things. This stage is the time when people begin in a hurry to learn about the world and trying to establish their place in it. To establish their place involves attempting new experiences several of which might turn out to be unsafe or even dangerous. They often realize that they have very little experience to fall back to when things go wrong. This may give rise to speedy changes in self-confidence and behavior. They may feel mature one minute, very immature and inexperienced the next minute.

They may have a sense of upset, sickness and lack of confidence that may create a feeling of vulnerability in them. They may express the feeling with morose behavior instead of obvious distress. The adolescent might start craving for excitement in a way most of the grown-ups find hard to comprehend. Some of these exciting activities might be dangerous. There are others who find excitement in music, games and sports and other actions that utilize a lot of energy but put them to less physical danger. When an adolescent does these things alone, they are actually in greater danger than when doing with others. This is because when with others they are likely to be controlled by older adolescents. In fact at this stage warning from older adolescents tends to be taken more seriously than warnings from parents.

Though not so often, behavioral changes and moods can indicate the start of more severe psychiatric disorder. This is not so common but depression and schizophrenia can come up for the first time during adolescence. Even though there are other explanations for withdrawal, extreme cases can indicate schizophrenia.  

Emotional problems

Adolescents are likely to suffer distress out of the changes they experience. Some of the signs of distress include over-eating excessive sleeping and over concern with appearance. They might suffer anxiety, producing phobias and panic attacks. Researches have proven that most adolescents suffer emotional disorders but the good news is that they can be easily recognized by family members and even friends. It is reported that 4 out of 10 adolescents feel so miserable that they cry and even feel like running away from everyone and everything. There are others usually 1 out of 5 who think so little of their lives and that it is not worth living. Apart from these two groups, depression is not obvious to other people.

Sexual problems

Adolescence can come with a lot of problems especially to those who are shy and are afraid of asking questions. They usually worry so much about their drastic physical changes. Most of the adolescent at the end of it articulate their apprehension with too much bragging about their sexual capabilities and experiences. The risk of pregnancy is a part of adolescent stage. A lot of people have their initial sex experience before they are 16. The law protects the adolescent in most countries. It is actually illegal and punishable by law to have sexual relationship with a minor. Even so, controlling sex among the adolescent themselves is difficult. The adolescent are usually unaware of the fact that those who start having sex early are in danger of early pregnancies and health problems. Crashes and petty love affairs are common in adolescence. There are even crashes on those of the same sex leading some of the adolescence into homosexuality. There is confusion in some of the adolescence at this stage on their sexual preferences. Some or even their parents might not know whether they are gay or not. Most people at this stage tend to choose their partners very carefully. Sleeping with anyone and having unprotected sex, exposing oneself to risk are signs that the person has some serious emotional issues.  

Behavior problems

Many are the times that the adolescent and their parents find fault with each others behavior. Most parents feel that they are no longer in control or in a position to influence their childrens behaviour. Adolescents feel that their parents are not giving them their space. They want their parents to be plain and constant about rules and boundaries. They resent any limitations on their freedom and their ability to make decisions. There is the tendency of getting into trouble if the parents give them absolute freedom without caring about where they go and what they do.

School problems

Adolescent may be reluctant to go to school. Some of the reasons for this include some of them find it difficult to separate from the parents they always want to be with them some feel the sense of perfection and if they dont do as well as they would have wanted they can avoid going back to try if they have a disturbed family life like divorce, separation of death of a parent and emotional problems that might cause head-ache a or stomach-ache. There are those who go to school but play truant. These are the kinds who are miserable at home and irritated at school. They go to school only to be with and play with others with similar problems. Emotion problems associated with adolescence will often affect academic progress. When adolescents are worried about themselves, this will automatically affect their concentration. When adolescents are pushed by parents and teachers to do well, they are driven to the edge because they actually push themselves to do well. They never want to fail.  When the adolescents are excessively nagged, it becomes counter-productive. Bullying at this stage is detrimental. If subjected to bullying, adolescents will tend to keep off the environment where it is happening. This is another reason why they will refuse to go to school. Rejection by the peers will cause withdrawal and distress.

Trouble with the law

As discussed earlier, adolescents like experimenting so much. They may be involved with activities that are against the law, but this will depend with the way they are handled at this stage. If the parents do not feel that going against the law is particularly important, there is a big possibility that their children will go against it. This mostly happen at the experimental stage which is the adolescent. Lack of happiness and distress can also cause adolescents to go against the law.

Recommended solutions

At this stage of life, all that the children require is love, understanding and support from the parents, teachers and all responsible adults. There is need for the parents and guardians to be prepared when their children reach the puberty stage. At the adolescence stage, both boys and girls require a lot of care and support from their parents. At the stage of rapid physical growth, there are those that mature faster than others. Those that are not growing as fast as their peers require reassurance that they are doing fine. The parents need to know that there are differences in the ages where the changes occur, to be in a position to reassure their children. If parents are not aware and are worried, they will worsen the situation in the adolescents. The adolescents should also be led to feel comfortable with their appearance and body size, whether they are fat or thin.

The adolescents like sleeping so much. This may be irritating but the parents need to understand that it is not laziness, but because the rapid growth and development take up a lot of energy and may cause them to feel sleepy all the time. The parents should understand that when their adolescent children spend most of their time in the company of their peers or making telephone conversations with each other, it is an important way of gaining independence. The parents should know that the friendships their children have established are ways of learning how to get along with each other and to gain a sense of identity that is separate from that of the family. Parents may feel disowned, which is true in a way, but is important for them to realize that it is a way for young people to establish personal identity. Even when they have disagreements and rejections, the children will always think of their parents. Parents should get the fact that they are parents from whom their children must learn to be independent if they are to have their own life. Parents may feel distresses in dealing with sulky behavior in their adolescent children, but they must be flexible and understanding in approaching it.

Parents should not shy away from teaching their children about sex and any other aspect of their life. This should not be done when they are old enough to engage in sex, but should start early in their life. Parents should teach their children on the danger of early sex. They should tell them about sexually transmitted infections especially HIVAIDS that is becoming very common. Sensitive support, proper guidance and counseling together with accurate information on sex-related matter are necessary. Parents, teachers, family doctors and any other responsible person in their life need to teach them. Researches have shown that girls who are close and free with their parents are less likely to get pregnant in their adolescence. Parents and teachers should consider the possibility of substances abuse when they see changes in behavior, but should approach the matter carefully. They should also teach children on the dangers of drugs and other substance abuse.

There is need for the parents to monitor their childrens movement and to know what they are up to in order to keep them away from trouble. Parents always need to find out where their children go and whom they hang out with. The adolescents need not be pushed too hard concerning their education. Nagging them will not help and exams even though important should not be allowed to dominate their lives because it will cause them unhappiness. School authorities should have policies in place to protect adolescents and ensure that their education is not destructed at this stage. Where parents or teachers observe that the adolescents are constantly getting into trouble, they should try to establish the underlying cause and then counsel.

People have different perceptions, attitude, behavior and personality. These differences may be attributed to the educational background, family environment, level of intelligence, manner of upbringing and cultural influencespractices among others. The differences may be determined upon a close look at the persons manner of making decisions or his manner of doing things in general  personality (Morris and Maisto, 2005). These matters and such other relevant information will be visited in this paper in the person of Diana, the interviewee. Diana is 26 years of age.
    In terms of learning process and cognition, Diana remembers more clearly actions and certain thoughts accompanying the actions when she observes the behavior being performed.  She reasoned that every time she watches a movie for instance, she is aware that both her sense of sight (eyes) and sense of hearing (ears) are functioning, sending the information to the brain.  Since there are two pathways from which the information goes into the brain, her brain processes and thinks faster that would send the information to the body to react in a certain way. Second, she considers both words and actions as contributing to her better understanding of the situation.  When she watches a behavior, like in movies, she listens to the words, sentences, and vocabulary used by the characters, and the actions accompanying the words are simply explanations of the conversation, or the other way around. Actions accompanied by words explaining them are better understood and retained in the memory. For her, reading yields a different result. When she reads, while she is able to go back to the parts which she does not understand, she still has to imagine the acts. That would take her a longer period to process, that is, she reads, thinks and imagines those acts which are not familiar to her. Observing is a lot easy for her, as she revealed, actions speak louder than words. She loves reading though but in terms of retaining the information, it is easier for her to remember observed actions considering that it is also easy for her to understand them. She noted that better understanding is a key to better memory retention. 
    On the other hand, her study habits are quite unique. She prefers to study in the house than in the library. She is better able to concentrate and retain what she has been reading when she does other things in the middle of her readings, like going to the kitchen to eat or to talk to anybody in the house for a minute on matters totally unrelated to what she is reading. All these are diversions for her. She is more focused in her studies when her attention is diverted to something totally unrelated to her readings and then back to reading again. She explained that maybe this is because her brain is telling her to focus because of the time lost when her attention is diverted to something else. Besides, she is more relaxed in the house than in the library.  For her, she could very well understand if she is relaxed than pressured in the library. 
    Diana took the Myers Briggs personality test when she was younger. She enjoyed doing personality tests considering that most results fit the behavior she thinks she has. In the Myers Briggs test, results show that she is very expressed extravert, moderately expressed sensing personality, moderate expressed thinking personality and very expressed judging personality.   Her being gregarious and accommodating, participative in her class and community activities, her confidence in communicating with people even with strangers are signs of her being extravert. She does not have any difficult in being in new places or with new facesstrangers, she could easily blend with the personalities and attitudes of strangers. She could easily befriend strangers and works with them a lot easy.  She is comfortable attending parties or any social activities in her community. Childhood for her was a lot exciting. She remembers staying out at a friends house for the weekend. On the other hand, she revealed she is not really an emotional person. She would only know the emotional struggle of a person when she asks him or her, otherwise, she would not mind at all. She said she uses her brain more than her emotions. She thinks the test results confirmed of what she thinks she is. For the present test, she thinks the results are accurate because that is how she views her self also. There are however personality tests which she does not trust because of the opposite results. Nevertheless, she tries taking online personality tests for fun and for the hope of knowing something more about her. 
    Diana shared that she does not really reflect on her attitude. She believes that her personality is not at all harmful to others considering that she has a lot of friends for years now.  She never started any trouble with her friends and would easily make amends whenever she feels there is something strange with the relationship.  Moreover, her family relationship is not bad.  She plays around with her siblings and communicates with her parents more often.  Her parents do not have many restrictions on her, the reason she does not feel any limitations at all in her actions, provided she respects others feelings, emotions and thoughts. She maintains a rule of thumb in her interpersonal relationships  respect and reverence. She understands that her attitude or personality may not be attractive to others and may even be offensive, but so long as she keeps that respect for others, everything would go smoothly. A harmonious and peaceful interpersonal relationship is better achieved in understanding other people, without having to adjust with their personality types. She is raised by being confident in her attitude, mindful of the values taught to her and she believes she is not doing any harm to others. She shared that to always monitor ones attitude would make her uncomfortable and uneasy in dealing with her friends. She is not comfortable with it in any way. True, she is not an emotional individual but she could easily feel strain in the relationship if there is any. Other than keeping in her mind the value of respect and fair dealing, she does not look at her inner self, her attitude in particular as others do.  
    Meanwhile, gender, race or ethnicity do not greatly affect ones personality. She opined that a person of values from childhood would grow to become an upright man or woman regardless of gender, race or ethnicity. She stretched that respect and reverence are universal rules observed across all countries. While there may be different practices showing respect, the fact remains that respect is observed. Childhood experiences and environment play an important role in forming ones personality. She said that her behavioral tendencies and personality type have been greatly shaped by her environment  the friends she goes along, the family that she grows up with, the school she attends to and most especially, the American culture of which she belongs. 
    Dianas evaluation on the evolution of her concept of self and personality can be better explained using attribution theory. Under this theory, people give meaning to their actions and behavior by attributing them to certain experiences which lead to do certain acts. In the same way, Diana attributed her personality type to her environment, family upbringing and educational achievement among others (Morris and Maisto, 2005).   
    In doing her stuffs, Diana is more likely to do things when she is intrinsically motivated.  First, she always does what she wants, and gets what she wants, and gets done whatever is needed to be finished. She does not rely on external motivation to do them, although extrinsic motivation would be a bonus for her.   For instance, grabbing a part time job for her was not so much of the compensation and on the people around her inviting her to work part time, the reason comes from her, that she wants it and so she does and gets it. Second, she simply loves keeping herself busy. She is more productive when busy. Not only does this gives her more opportunity to learn but also an opportunity for her to meet with different people and to get compensated. Third, she is focused in the things she needs to do. She completes her work assignment because it is a duty she commits herself to do. She takes time to comply her commitment and duties. 
    Dianas personality is reflective of a person who is responsible at her age. She takes the challenge of completing her education got herself a part time job after school and works joins social activities either in school or in her neighborhood. She is optimistic in her dealings and outlook in life. I share similar thoughts and attitude with Diana. However, in terms of learning and cognition, I am better at reading about a certain behavior.  In reading, it is easier for me to read back what I do not understand and once I understand the passage in relation to the behavior, retention does not become a problem. I prefer to imagine the sequence of events as detailed in the story while reading as compared to observing the same. However, we share the same attitude in terms of study habits. We both prefer to study in our houses. I work better when I have little diversions in the middle of my readings or school papers. It may probably for the same reason, the little time left for studying is always the quality time. I am comfortable working under pressure, and more productive at that.  In terms of gregariousness, we share the same characteristics. I am friendly and easy to be dealt with. I could easily get friends with others and easy to get along with. I do not have much hesitations in terms of choosing the people I go with. I welcome and often attend parties and night outs. Gregariousness wise, I too, am extrovert. I am confident about myself. 
    On the other hand, I do monitor my attitude. I am high in self-monitoring. There are instances when I look at what I have done the kind of person I am, and my worth as a person. I look at the impact of my actions on others and try to assess their perception on me. This does not however mean that I rely on others perceptions on how I should behave, but I look at their thoughts and reactions of me, of the words I say and the things I do when I am around with people. 
    In my personal point of view, my race and nationality affect my personality type.  Culture and thus the nature of the environment I am exposed to affect my perception, way of thinking and way of behaving. The way I do certain things may, in one way or another, be inherent in me but they must have been developed by the type of culture I have grown.  The way I understand things are shaped by my childhood experiences with highly liberal people around. The Western people are exposed to different ways of life and ways of thinking. I personally believed that being an American is an advantage in itself in terms of work opportunities and school performance, among others. We learn to be independent in the decisions we make and make the best of the time that we have. Having grown in a country where everything is almost allowed (except acts equivalent to crimes) allows me for instance to explore and understand the world a lot better compared to others. 
    People differ in personality types. However, the discrepancy does not at all create conflict or chaos. Understanding the behavioral tendencies and personality types of different people would reveal that each of us is unique. Even the closest of friends and twins who are exposed to different culture and environment would vary in the choices they make and in the things they do. What is amazing is that knowing the uniqueness of us individually would allow us to appreciate more what we are as a person and the people around us.

This article discussed the clashing view of Richard P. Kluft and Elizabeth F. Lottus regarding repressed memories.  Repressed memories are those events that were once forgotten but are subsequently remembered, often during the process of therapy (157). The content of repressed memories are often disturbing and traumatic events such as incest, gang rape and abuse.
    Richard P. Klufts argues that people who experiences traumatic events may repress their recollections of those events. The author presented some clinical experiences he encountered in his practice as a psychiatrist that confirms his hypothesis. One example is a woman who cannot establish a good relationship with the opposite sex recalled through hypnosis that her therapists seduced her (the therapist confessed to the incident). Another is a Marine who served in Vietnam claimed to have not seen any combat but recovered memories of his base being attacked and how he killed some of the enemies. Although the patient disbelieved them, military record and his war buddy attested to it.  The author cited other examples demonstrating that people can shield themselves from undesirable memories. Kluft discredited the work of Holmes about students reaction to failing French test as a proof that the impact of negative experiences declines over time. According to Kluft, failing a French test is different from sexual abuse or gang rape. Also, Loftus lost-in-the-mall experiment suggested that memories can be suggested or distorted but it does not show that all recovered memories are false. Kruft noted that memory recollection and complete abolition may both occur. 
In the second article, Elizabeth Loftus, a cognitive psychologist contends that false memories can be created. The author cited incidents where hypnosis and suggestive techniques done by psychiatrists created false memories for the patients. One of the cases is that of Nadean Cool who became convinced that she was sexually and physically abused but was found to be a virgin. Loftus mentioned three other cases where therapy awakened false memories from the patients. According to Loftus, these are evidences that memories can be instilled. To further prove her claim, she conducted various experiments about false memories. In one experiment, she tested the misinformation effect from witnesses of a simulated accident in an intersection with a stop sign. After viewing the incident, half of the participants were told the sign was a yield sign. Result showed that those who were not given the false suggestion had more accurate memory of the sign.
In the lost-in-the-mall experiment, 24 participants from 18 to 53 years of age were asked to recall childhood incidents retold by their relatives. Each participant was given three true incidents and a false story about being lost in the mall. The participants recalled 68 percent of the true events when asked in the preceding interviews and seven of the participants recalled partially or fully the false event. The study showed that people can be persuaded to remember events that never happened. This is consistent with the results of a study conducted by Hyman, Husband and Billing using false memory of hospitalization where 84 percent of the participants recalled the true events and none recalled the false event during the first interview but 88 percent recalled the true events and 20 percent recalled the false event during the second interview. The author cited similar studies done on the power of false memory implantation.

Adlerian approach focuses on the individual self of a person, his distinctive characteristics and unique personality as an object and proactive member of society.  The individual self interacts and is an element of society through communicative interaction it is developed by the creation and preservation of social relationship, which social relationship is rooted on a filial interaction and communication.  In this regard, Adler views the individual self as an object, an element of the community and takes an active part through social interaction which in the event of such interaction, the self is more enhanced and developed instead of losing its personalityidentity.  In the course of social interaction, the individual self creates and becomes more conscious of its existence, thus, the individual develops a sense of consciousness of his own self with society playing an important role in its evolution and development.  Social interest is the pinnacle of Adlers theory.  Having these as premises, Watts (2003) opined that Adlerian approach is properly labeled as relational constructivism in nature, one which is situated between cognitive constructivist and social constructionist.
For purposes of Adlerian therapy, the positive aspect of it is that a client who seeks for therapy is never considered sick instead he is considered to have lost the encouragement, the individual self capacity having been overloaded with societal influential elements.  The client thus is required to reconstruct his sense or consciousness of his individuality through societal and communicative relationships.  In the course of the therapy, Adler emphasizes the enhancement of the relationship between the client and the therapist as a start.  As such, he promotes the inclusion in the therapy of the following
sense of cooperation            e. optimism
sense of collaboration            f. respect
egalitarianism                g. value of sharing.
mutualityh. sense of religiosityspirituality.
In particular, the client must establish a sense of trust to his therapist.  This aims to develop and encourage the sense of trust by the client to his interactive world.  Happiness or sense of satisfaction and contentment is achieved through the cooperation and collaboration of the client (self) to society. 
    Adlerian approach explicitly and implicitly recognizes the importance of ones God (sense of religiosity).  Clients who are atheists (who are not uncommon) would in effect be taken a back.   The therapy must be programmed in accordance to the personality of the client in the first place.  It should not be made to apply across all types of clients.  Second, the emphasis of the self being an active elementpart of society might not necessarily enhance the clients ability to encourage his act of knowing more and becoming more conscious of himself in the optimistic side.  The individuality of the self might be taken for granted.  Third, too much involvement and interactive approach of the therapist may cause a negative impact on the clients ability to enhance his self-awareness or consciousness. 
    However, it is of personal view that Adlerian approach be adopted for certain personality types only.  In the therapy process, it should be encouraged that the client learns to acknowledge his positive sense of being in relation to the world he lives in.  This would be a tacit recognition of the important role he plays in the community. 

Person-centered Therapy
The person-centered theory advocated by Rogers is reflective of the humanistic approach of therapy.  The humanistic approach views people as capable, autonomous, with the ability to resolve their difficulties, realize their potential, and change their lives in positive ways (Seligman, 2006). 
In the course of the therapy, therapists are to establish a growth promoting climate for the client.  In view of the humanistic approach, the therapist does not play an active role towards the clients rehabilitation and regaining his sense of self.  Instead, the client is free to make the decisions and ascertain his direction towards self-actualization.  The client plays an active role in view of transformation the therapist must thus develop the sense of empathy rather than sympathy.  In this regard, the process must allow the client to increase his level of self-esteem, high level of sense of worth, both being achieved through unconditional positive regard.  In particular, in order to develop a growth promoting climate for the client, therapists must endeavor to enhance congruence, unconditional positive regard and acceptance, empathy and reflection of feelings.
In congruence, the therapist must be able to position himself, his reactions and responses in accordance with the feelings and emotional struggle of the client.  The behavioral reactions for example must be in accordance to the words of empathy or unconditional positive enforcements uttered.  On the other hand, the therapists must unconditionally point out the positive aspects or characteristics of the client.  This would enhance the clients self-esteem that his acts are unconditionally rewarded and recognized.  Unfavorable behavior of the client must not be responded with disagreement, but must be countered with a genuine concern on the client.   Meanwhile, empathy is the act of understanding the situation of the client, without having to feel sorry for him.  The client is allowed to further express his emotions and actively cope from emotional distressstruggle. 
In practice, it is personally opined to give unconditional positive regard to the client.  In this way, he would be allowed to realize for himself what is good of himself which is worthy to be enhanced.  Self-actualization would be best enhanced whenever he is allowed to appreciate his sense of self, his sense of well-being. 
The combination of person-centered therapy with other techniques must not veer away with the active role of the client towards self-actualization.  This may entail for example a greater involvement of the therapist.  But in the course thereof, the client must be allowed to determine for himself his ways of coping and his decisions be highly regarded, the therapist merely be limited at expressing his concerns in case his disagrees with the client. 
Gestalt Therapy
In gestalt approach, the self is viewed as the integration of the surrounding factors generated by the environmentalfield of wherein one is in.  The self is then the offshoot of the complex interaction of these factors (Yontef and Fairfield, 2005).  
In the case of Allie having gotten herself impregnated and abandoned by her boyfriend, she must be subjected to both awareness focusing and loosening and integrating techniques.  Awareness focusing allows her to accept the fact of change in her relationship with her boyfriend.  This goes with the bracketing of assumptions, probable consequences and an outline of courses of actions that should be taken upon the happening of certain events.  The awareness of the fact of change would help facilitate the coping process of accepting the new gestalt, the new experience, the new environment and adjust to it.   In gestalt approach, the acceptance is the initial stage for change.  Acceptance of the fact of breaking up will thus open towards adapting a new environment for instance of being a single mom or abortion as the case may be.    Moreover, the adjustment and coping are more facilitated when combined with the loosening and integrating techniques.  The impregnation and subsequent realization of being left in the relationship would facilitate the modification of the perceived self.  The loosening technique allows Allie to vary her imagination and perception of what she thinks her parents perception of her.  This changes what she believes to be true of herself based on what she thinks her parents perceived her to be.  Corollary to loosening is the integration technique.  It allows the client to integrate, to adapt to what she previously disregarded about herself.  In effect, this opens to change of paradigm, of perception or of knowledge about oneself. 
The feelings of anxiety, aloneness and feeling of guilt may be transformed to an optimistic view of Allies self through expression and enactment techniques.  She must be able to express her emotions and fears to her environment (in this particular case, her family and immediate friends).  Expression brings about more communicative interaction with her world, and her world being able to adjust to the change in her condition.  Her psychological problems are better resolved by a concurrent change in her perception and that of her fieldenvironment. 
Behavior Therapy
The theoretical foundations of the different behavioral therapy are summarized below as follows
Classical conditioning.  In classical conditioning, an unconditional stimulus (UCS) creates an unconditional response (UCR).  When the UCS is paired with neutral stimulus (NS) to obtain the UCR, and the process is repeated to the point that the NS alone produces the UCR, the NS becomes a conditioned response (CS).
Operant conditioning.  The learned responses are the by-product of the consequences of the act.  Behavioral learning takes place when the act and the consequences of such act are repeatedly obtained.  Reinforcement and punishment play an important role in the learning process and likewise in the therapy process. 
Social learning.  This is also called modeling technique.  An individual learns from his observation of the learning process of another.  The learning process here is an extension of both classical and operant conditioning in that in whatever way the model learns, either through classical or operant conditioning, the former learns by observing and copying from the latter. 
Cognitive Trend.  The cognitive trend focuses on what is in the present (time).  This is premised on the concept that thoughts influence ones feelings and emotions.  In particular, the process aims to alter what a person does and how he thinks helping such person to cope with lifes emotional or psychological struggles through behavioral techniques. 
Systematic desensitization is a behavioral treatment commonly used in eliminating phobias.  In this treatment, the stimulus-response relationship, such as the fear generated by the stimulus creating the fear, is weakened, to the end that the stimulus would no longer create fear in the mind of the clientpatient.  For instance, a client who fears flying a lot may overcome the same.  First, the client must learn to counter her fear of heights.  Flying entails being in a certain height and dropping therefrom.  Second, modeling technique may be used.  Videos, pictures or actual observation may be used to model other people flying in planes, without them being harmed or put to danger after having flown.  The psychological process is actually coupled with cognitive trend, an understanding of the consequences of the stimulus.  Constant exposure to this scenario without having the models being harmed reduces the relationship between the stimulus and the consequent fear created.  Lastly, the client must be accompanied in flying in planes himself.  A repeated positive experience (without having been harmed) would now eliminate the fear previously had. 

The presence or absence of mental disorder is not easy to determine as compared physical diseases which are easy to diagnose. Normal and abnormal behavior is judged differently among the society, individuals, and even mental health professionals. The society bases their judgment on whether the behavior exhibited by an individual is accepted in the present social order. Mental health professionals focus on personality uniqueness and also a personal distress. There are various types of psychological disorders which include psychosomatic and somatoform disorders, schizophrenia, panic disorders, anxiety disorders, dissociative disorders, sexual disorders among many other types. This paper examines sexual disorder in great details by giving a general description of the disorder, how it is diagnosed and treated and the current trends.
Sexual disorders
    Normal sexual behavior differs with conditions, individual, and even the culture where one belongs to, though there are sexual standards across the globe despite the culture where one belongs to. Among these standards are showing interest in sex, sexual attractiveness based on some physical features and health, and sexual relationships being concealed. There are only three types of sexual disorders which are documented and they include paraphilias, sexual dysfunctions, and gender identity disorders (Morris  Maisto, 2005).
    Sexual dysfunction is defined as the failure or impairment of the normal physical responses of sexual role. In males, it can manifest as erectile dysfunction which is the failure to attain and maintain full erection while in women, it presents as female sexual arousal disorder. Female sexual arousal disorder means failure to become sexually thrilled or to attain orgasm. These problems are quite common among people, however they are only considered as a problem when they happen quite often disrupting enjoyment of sexual relationships. Studies have shown that prevalence rate of erectile dysfunction is quite high even in men who are considered healthy. Treatment of the condition by use of Viagra has proved successful despite the cause of the disorder. This medication is also used in men with spinal cord injury to enable them resume normal sex life. The effectiveness of Viagra depends on the prior sexual arousal.
    Sexual desire disorders may mean lack of interest in sex or even strong disgust for sex. Women are reported to experience low sexual desires as compared to men and this contributes to about 40 of sexual dysfunctions. The degree and etiology of these disorders in both sexes is not easy to evaluate since some individuals just have low enthusiasm for sexual act and show satisfaction to the low interest they exhibit. Other people fail to report lack of interest in sexual act but show physiological signs of blocked crave. The above factors have led to the conclusion that the disorders may be caused by physical abnormalities.
    Individuals who feel neutral about sex or experience distaste to sex are thought to have had earlier painful experiences or even unsatisfying relationships. Some individuals are also reported to have sexual interest and maintain excitement but fail to reach orgasm which is regarded as peaking of sexual enjoyment and discharge of sexual tension. Male orgasmic disorder which is the failure to ejaculate even when one if fully aroused is uncommon, however it is rising since men like to practice the delay of orgasm. This disorder can also be linked to psychological factors like painful experiences and certain drugs like anti depressants. The problem is more prevalent in females than males. Another disorder in males is premature ejaculation which is defined as the failure of the man to hold orgasm for a period which is recommended. Vaginismus is a disorder experienced by women. It involves involuntary muscle contractions which occur in the outer part of the vagina during sexual arousal and it makes sexual act difficult.
    Paraphilias results from use of non human sex objects or situations to obtain sexual arousal. The repeated use of these objects so as to achieve sexual arousal is considered as a disorder which is referred to as fetishism. The majority of people with fetishism are male and the disorder starts at adolescent. Voyeurism is another sexual abnormality which is associated with watching other people have sex or looking at people who are naked. Other sexual disorders include exhibitionism which is exposure of ones genital organs in the public so as to achieve sexual excitement. Frotteurism is a way of attaining sexual arousal by rubbing ones genitals against a person who is not aware in a public place, and transvestic fetishism which involves putting on clothes of a person of opposite sex so as to achieve sexual excitement.
    Another example of paraphilias is pedophilia which involves repeated, strong sexual excitement, sexual desires, or even sexual behaviors involving sexual act with a young child who has not attained puberty. People who are involved in such behaviors are most of the times close relatives of the child abused. Pedophiles are unable to adjust to sexual responsibility of an adult man and only show sexual desire in children which they abuse. Turning to children may be due to stress which they experience in adult relations where they do not feel satisfied.
    Gender identity disorder is a type of sexual disorder where one desires to become a member of the opposite sex e.g. a man wanting to become a woman. Such people wear clothing which belongs to the opposite sex and even their actions depict that of the opposite sex. The condition starts at childhood where the children involved do not feel comfortable with their sex. Most of the children with this disorder changes in adulthood and accept their gender while some continue into adulthood.  Adults who have this disorder can undergo sexual reassignment surgery which is coupled with hormonal therapy. People who have been operated on have low level of nervousness and dejection. Though the possible causes of gender identity disorders are not known, there is a suggestion that biological factors contribute to their occurrence.

Abstract
In an organization, we need to deal with workers having different personaliteis.  We need to analyze their behavior in order to resolve issues relating to productivity.  The situation is precarious that the workers give only 50 of their capacity.  How to improve the situation  How to utilize their fullest potential.   We need to develop suitable strategy to prepare action plan in a systematic way. This will help to resolve the problem to a considerable extent.

X Company Ltd is facing facing problem due to unproductive workders. 
Mr. K. P Mishra, General Manager  Human Relations was was facing the precarious situation .  He is a well-trained Manager working for Alkem Laboratoires Ltd for the past 10 years.   Unfortunately, he has to face the challenge of improving the situation immediately.

The workers have become irresponsible and totally unmovtivated. They working less during the office hours and they giving us same output during the over time hours so that they can acquire more money . And the result of all this is the less productivity and more costing to the company . The situation need to be improved because
There is an urgent need to enhance productivity
The quality of the output must be in accordnace with the prescribed standared.
It is essential to impart discipline in the work place.
So, the company decided to change the  policy where current workers dont run away as there is labor shortage too but at the same time should be more responsible and motivated so they can work in office hours more and less on over time hours so that i can cut some of the their over time hours and reduce my cost.
Following measures will help to improve the situation
1.   To counsel the works     You need to engineer the work environment to encourage value-added behaviors and discourage inappropriate behaviors. Understanding the problems of workers will help to resolve their issues amicably.
What supervisors say and how they say it is the most significant tool available in the organizations quest to manage work behavior. Simply acknowledging specific behaviors that demonstrate extra effort, add value to the product, show creativity, or identify potential problems will encourage more of the same behavior.
2.  Specify goals candidly    Employees must be aware of what they need to do to be successful, not how you want them to be - like loyal, creative, committed, engaged, proactive, team-oriented, conscientious, and so forth.
3.   Analyzing performance   Try to find out formal and informal problem-solving tactics depending upon the situation. employee making extra effort might be one or any of the following.
Obviously, it is essential to create congenial atmosphere to enable workers to enhance productivity. However, workers must focus their efforts to utilize the time judiciously and give optimum productivity.
4 Give freedom   Close monitoring will not help workers to increase productivity.  If we give them freedom, it will help to improve their performance progressively
5.   Remove barriers     it is of utmost importance that the barriers to the production must be removed. To increase productivity and profitability is to remove the barriers and constraints that dysfunctional systems and processes create for employees.
The average employee often has to work extremely hard to overcome the outdated policies, procedures, and processes that create bottlenecks, redundancies, parallel processes, and work delays. Even the best performers quickly grow impatient in an environment where extra effort is diluted by systems restrictions.
6.  Employee participation   if we involve workers in the process of decision making, they will be motivated to work better and give more productivity.
7.  Employees are aware where the opportunities reside. On any given day, employees can give you a list of at least three specific behaviors that will improve quality, service, productivity, or timeliness. But they are seldom asked.
7. Decide your strategic objectives into the results, tasks, and most importantlythe specific behaviors required from every employee to achieve those objectives.
8.  Asserting Objective   Arrange to have dialogue with employees about the specific job behaviors that will support the companys strategy. For example, some strategic customer service objectives can only be achieved through changing the behavior of employees who deal with customers face to face.
We need to keep in mind that the unstated purpose of employee motivational programs has always been to change employee behaviorto encourage employees to perform tasks more quickly, seek more tasks, put forth additional effort, and increase value-added behavior.
At managerial level, changes need to be implemented.  If we start changing in this way, the consequences for behavior, behavior will change the objective of motivational efforts almost directed toward outcome achieving the change.
These kinds of exercises can not be sustained unless the work environment supports new behaviors.  Hence, we need to formulate a policy to implement discipline.  This should be done in a prudent way to avoid resistance from workers.
 References
Based on research in respect of human relations pertaining to working conditions.
Practical situations faced in Alkem Laboratories Ltd and Mukand Ltd.,Mumbai.

The aviation industry, primarily in the commercial sector, has a vast experience with regard to application of the state of the art technology which majors in human support systems, for instance the flight regulation instated in modern glass cockpits. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) initiated research at INEL to find out common errors by pilots which were rampant when the pilots were operating automated systems in space in advanced technology aircraft. The study researched the major causes and potential remedies to pilots inability to keep on the track delineated by on the ground air traffic controllers. In order to reach the objective of the research, NASA assessed deviation events with regard to altitude that were recorded by the Aviation Safety Reporting System (ASRS). ASRS was an initiative by NASA which maintained a database of all flight occurrences that had been recounted by pilots as well as air traffic controllers.  In response NASA came up with a model of the tasks that are expected of pilots so as to track and maintain the delineated altitudes assigned to them by the air traffic controllers on the ground. The reports that were acquired from the database of ASRS were used as a referral page to design the models.
    In the recent times the aviation industry together with the efforts of NASA and NTSB has stressed the importance of in-flight airline personnel coordination as well as intra-cockpit coordination together with the social grooming of professional relationships among crew members. Ideally the concept of cockpit resource management (CRM) stemmed from the need of strategic and organizational framework reformulation in the way the crew managed the aircraft while amidst flight. This implicated that their management of the flight was supposed to be the effort of a team as opposed to singularity in action (Foushee and Helmreich 1988). In glass cockpit, CRM refers to the practice of the flight crew, cabin crew and cockpit crew, which ideally encourages them to enhance each other.
    In a bid to tame accidents that were primarily attributed to controlled flight into terrain (CFI) that dipped the aviation industry mainly in the seventies, the FAA in the beginning of the eighties initiated a strategy dubbed FAR 121.542  to reverse this trend This strategy, FAR 121.542, postulated that all flight crew personnel were prohibited from undertaking any measures in the event of a critical phase of flight with the exception of only those practices that had been exemplified that would see the secure operation of the plane (Amalberti 1998). The portfolio of this critical phases practices of flight constituted of all operations on the ground including taxi, landing as well as takeoff together with all other flight practices and operations that were undertaken below ten thousand feet with the exception of cruise flight. The strategy further particularized that all flight crew personnel were restricted from any practice during an aircrafts critical phase that could result in the distraction of another member of the crew ultimately resulting in the improper conduct of the aircraft. As such this communication that delineated the interaction of the crew members assigned each crew member with expected duties thus eliminating the element of confusion as well as clash of duties as each crew was aware of hisher expectation and thus engaged in practices that were all beneficial to the flight and not to its detriment. The cabin crew only passed information that was judged as critical to the pilot in the cockpit avoiding unnecessary panic.
    The initiation of state of the art auto pilot, flight control as well as flight monitoring systems in todays aircraft such as the one in the air bus series, the Boeing together with the McDonnell Douglas has led to immense changes in the operation of the said aircraft. The pilots together with the co-pilots as well as other technical attendants in air have reversed their role from in-the loop pilots to managers of an advanced system. The state of the art technology has implicated that more of the duties formerly assigned to human labour has been taken up by technology thus resulting into airlines reducing the crew to two from three. The role of the flight engineer has been assumed by the computerised system that manages the flight through out its tenure in the air. The workload that was assigned to the numerous in-flight attendants has significantly diminished for some but for others there has been an increase in expected roles with their work schedules seeing additional tasks added. A case in mind is the FMS reprogramming that may be called up by air traffic control that expects the pilot to implement several modifications to the flights initial plans.
    The current level of safety in aircraft can also be attributed to glass cockpit aviation. Safety indexes are proof of the fact that glass cockpits in comparison to previous generation of aircraft have accident ratings that are approximately half the rate recorded for the traditional aircraft. The safety ratings recorded as a result of the invention of glass cockpit aviation can be compared to the safety standards that are exhibited in the railway system as well as the nuclear industry. One though has to put in mind the contribution of other variables in conjunction with glass cockpit aviation which include air traffic control together with airports as well as the employment of simulators in training.
      One advantage that glass cockpit aviation has significantly gained the aviation industry is within the field of Electronic Flight Instrument Systems. Ideally aircrafts became most sought after means of transportation when both accurate as well as secure instruments of flight eliminated the option of the pilot having to constantly maintain visual correspondence with the ground to gain information with regard to the various needs that arose. Electronic Flight Instrument Systems are absolutely critical to the pilot especially when heshe is expected to carry out flight operations and practices that are deemed safe. It is important for the said pilot to have primary working knowledge of the instruments. Glass cockpit aircraft has an array of instruments that aid the pilot in operating the aircraft. These include the altimeter as well as the magnetic air speed indicator together with the air speed indicator (ASI). These instruments are a requirement as delineated in the visual fight rules (VFR). Instrument flight rules (IFR), in addition to the above instruments also expects that all in-flight aircraft also consist of other instruments that primarily include, a gyroscopic rate-of-turn indicator as well as a device that the aircrafts flight crew use for taking barometric pressure indexes generally referred to as the sensitive altimeter adjustable. In addition to the above instruments glass cockpit aircrafts also have slip-skid indicator as well as a flight-clock that displays seconds, minutes as well as hours. This clock has a sweep digital pointer which primarily displays digital information. Moreover the aircraft also has a gyroscopic pitch-and-bank indicator which the flight crew uses for ascertaining a digital horizon together with a gyroscopic direction indicator. The Electronic Flight Instrument Systems exhibit unsurpassed flexibility which enhances coordination of the flight crew members with its system that is adequately located to enable flow of information among the crew members. The glass cockpits en route ADI as well as terminal modes of display come with the advantage of alleviating unwarranted pieces of information. The glass cockpits air speed and trend displays feed the pilot with the necessary information that allow him to integrate multifunction of the plane with the resultant advantage of balancing within the operations. Glass cockpits Electronic Flight Instrument System makes use of the architecture integrated within the system making the aircraft capable of performing extensive reversions in its operation in critical times. Moreover, during critical moments the glass cockpits extensive capability to perform diagnostic tests with its integrated technology elevates it favourably in comparison to the traditional aircraft as it diminishes the pilots need for equipment to perform line tests. This saves the pilot and the crew on time which might be critical in times of crises. The systems full-sky ADI as well as its 3D runway which is capable of accessing satellite views of the outside world provide the crew with more realistic images upon which they can make sound decisions. The electronic flight instrument systems work together with the attitude director indicator as well as the multifunction display to derive an articulated flight deck display. The attitude director indicator is capable of providing satellite images of the earth as well as the sky that ideally add up to fifty percent more to the pilots comprehension of the intended terminal. In addition to this the en route formats realized from this instrument are also larger than the ones realized from the standard 5 electromechanical instrument. The attitude director indicator blends several formats of display with the radar for the weather and the integrated NAV source selection to derive an easy to understand and follow systemization of all flight practices together with tasks that are ideally endeared to avoid detrimental weather.   
        Many changes that have been introduced to the aviation industry by automation have resulted into significant benefits. This benefits would not have seen the light of the day were it not for the technology that the automated systems derive. The complexity of the aircraft without the automated system is very difficult to operate, as such, the modern technology benefits complex processes such as nuclear power plant operation as well as and aircraft (Sheridan 1992). A vast array of the automated systems in glass cockpit aviation have been received favourably and found to be invaluable by the flight crew thus cancelling the argument from some quarters that argue out automation to be for its owns sake (Peterson 1984). Such advantages include the horizontal situation indicator used by pilots. This instrument is placed at the artificial horizon assuming the position of the standard directional gyro (DG). In conjunction with another instrument known as the course deviation indicator it derives display for the pilot and thus diminishes instruments under the scope of the pilots watch. The HIS instrument is also integrated with a glide slope needle which implicates that the ILS instrument that is primarily located on the ground to provide critical information during landing, can be flown by singularly referring to the six primary flight instruments. Among other merits of the HIS instrument include its freedom with regard to the mix-up of reverse sensing. 
Some invaluable changes have also resulted from automation of the aircraft primarily changes that regard safety as well as user satisfaction. Human error that is usually associated with operating complex machinery has been eliminated by the glass cockpits embracing of computerised systems to run its complex flight operations. These complex operations were in the traditional aircraft under the command of the flight engineer. In the traditional aircraft, as a result of the flight engineers human error, these planes were prone to aviation accidents. Such is not the case for the glass cockpit as there operation is the subject of state of the art computer systems with the capability to calculate solutions and derive logical answers to complex systems with utmost precision as well as speed. Successful implementation of these changes needs highly trained pilots.   
    Monitoring of operations in the glass cockpit has been at most efficient. In general flight personnel have performed well in their diverse working environments that constitute the cockpit crew as well as the cabin crew. These improvements in their performance with overall decrease in aviation accidents can be attributed to the state of the art technology that glass cockpit hires in its computerised system. In a sense, when an array of probabilities for failure is rallied against the rate of success that has been realised in the crew, both on the ground as well as in-flight which ideally encompasses every single second of this continuous process, the relatively diminished occurrences of human error is impressive.
    One benefit that the computerization of the glass cockpit has resulted into is the reduction of the mental workload of its crew members and other flight operators. This was brought about by the fact that the complexity of the operation of the flight implicated momentous mental distress for the flight engineer. This was especially true, putting in mind that the flight engineer was a human being who would be much distressed especially in times of complexity. The human mind has its limits when it is faced with problems to solve. In critical situations when for instance the plane is in distress, the flight engineer might be distressed thinking about the plight of his family in the event of something going wrong in the plane. As such his divided mental attention might be much to the detriment of the operation consequently resulting into a crisis. In contrast to such circumstances, glass cockpit offers sophisticated technology that is able to realize probable and sound solutions without the burden of mental interruption unlike humans, they are bereft of these feelings. As such glass cockpit reduces human error and at the same time gains the crew the advantage of safety.
    In general glass cockpit has had a significant impact on aviation industry. Though some of these impacts have been negative, the significant benefit to the crew with regard to duty that was assigned and expected of them has either diminished or the said duties have been assumed by machines, creating a more simplified working environment.